THE CONTINE 

AND 

THEIR PEOPL 





OCEANIA 

CHAMBERLAIN 




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THE CONTINENTS AND THEIR PEOPLE 

OCEANIA 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

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MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

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THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



THE CONTINENTS AND THEIR PEOPLE 

OCEANIA 

A SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY 

BY 
JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN, Ed.B., S.B. 

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 

LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA ; AUTHOR OF HOME AND 

WORLD SERIES OF GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 

AND 

ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN, B.S., A.M. 

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, THROOP POLYTECHNIC 

INSTITUTE, PASADENA, CALIFORNIA ; 

AUTHOR OF "STANDARDS IN EDUCATION," ETC. 

EDITOR SIERRA EDUCATIONAL NEWS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1916 

All rights reserved 






COPYKIGHT, 1916, 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotypcd. Published December, 1916. 




»** 



DEC 14 1916 
©CI.A446808 



PREFACE 

During recent years Australia and the islands of 
the Pacific have attracted much attention. In these 
times of hunger for land, Australia is one of the few 
areas toward which settlers with limited means can 
turn. This is because the country is very sparsely 
populated, which in turn is the natural result of light 
rainfall in most of the continent. 

The people of Australia have faith in their country, 
and faith in themselves. Through irrigation vast 
tracts have been reclaimed. Cities have sprung up 
in the desert in response to the rich deposits of gold 
and other forms of mineral wealth. Telegraph lines 
cross the continent, and railroads are steadily open- 
ing up new areas. Australian cities are as progressive 
as any in the world, and government and education 
are abreast of the times. To a larger extent than 
is true of any other continent, Australia is being 
developed by the people of a single nationality, 
English, 



VI PREFACE 

Most of the islands discussed in this volume have 
tropical climates. They are therefore not suited to 
be the homes of large numbers of white laborers. 
These very climatic conditions, however, cause them 
to be important economically, and they help to supply 
the people living in temperate lands with valuable 
commodities. 

Many of these islands have an importance entirely 
apart from the economic. The absence of cold 
weather, the beautiful scenery, and the interesting 
human conditions attract manv visitors. As some 
of these islands belong to the United States, we are 
especially interested in them. 

In this, the last volume of The Continents and 
Their People Series, the authors have presented some 
of the more important phases of the geography of 
Oceania. As in the other volumes of the series, an 
attempt has been made to show, in an interesting 
manner, the relationships between human life and 
its environing conditions, and to adapt the material 
to the ability of the pupiL 

For photographs and valuable printed matter the 
authors are especially indebted to the following : Im- 
migration and Tourist Bureau, Sydney; Department 
of External Affairs, Melbourne ; Immigration and 
General Information Bureau, Perth; Mr. F. T. A. 
Fricke ? Government Representative from Victoria ; 



PREFACE Vll 

San Francisco Immigration and Intelligence Branch 
of Department of Agriculture and Stock, Hobart; 
Department of Tourist and Health Resorts, Welling- 
ton ; Mr. L. F. Cockroft, General Passenger Agent, 
Oceanic Steamship Company, San Francisco. 

Pasadena, California. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTEE 












PAGE 


I. 


The Continent of Australia . 




• 


1 


II. 


Queensland .... 




• 


. 


. 21 


III. 


j\ t ew South Wales 










. 26 


IV. 


The Garden State 












. 35 


V. 


South Australia 












. 41 


VI. 


Western Australia . 












. 45 


VII. 


Northern Territory 












. 51 


VIII. 


Tasmania 












. 53 


IX. 


New Zealand 












. 61 


X. 


New Guinea ... 












76 


XI. 


Celebes .... 












80 


XII. 


Borneo 












86 


XIII. 


Java .... 












93 


XIV. 


Sumatra .... 












105 


XV. 


The Philippine Islands 












113 


XVI. 


The Fiji Islands 












124 


XVII. 
£VIIL 


The Samoa Islands . 
Tahiti 












131 
144 


XIX. 


The Hawaiian Islands 












148 



IX 



OCEANIA 

CHAPTER I 

THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 

Southeast of Asia the Pacific Ocean is dotted with 
islands. There are thousands of them, and although 
some are large, they are in most cases so small that you 
have never heard of them nor even seen their names 
upon a map. The larger number of these islands are 
either of coral or of volcanic origin. The chief islands 
and groups of islands in the South Pacific are the Philip- 
pines, the East Indies, Australia, Tasmania, New Zea- 
land, the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, the Fiji 
Islands, the Samoa Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands. 
To these and the many other groups, the name Oceania 
is commonly applied. 

Australia is the only body of land in Oceania that is 
called a continent. It is the smallest of the continents, 
yet it is nearly as large as Europe, the United States, 
or Canada. When we compare these areas as to popu- 
lation, however, we find a great difference. The total 
population of Australia, according to the census of 
1911, was 4,455,005. As there are several large cities, 



2 OCEANIA 

you can see that the rural population of Australia is 
very sparse. London has a much larger population 
than this. The newness of the country and the lack 
of rainfall are important reasons for the sparse popu- 
lation. 

Although the coast line of Australia is remarkably 
regular, there are some excellent harbors, especially on 
the east. Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Newcastle, 
and Brisbane are located upon good harbors. Along 
the northeastern coast, for a distance of about 1000 
miles, there is a passage sheltered by the continent upon 
one hand and the Great Barrier Reef upon the other. 
This passage averages thirty miles in width, and many 
vessels take advantage of the quiet water. light- 
houses have been erected as a protection to mariners. 

The Barrier Reef is a coral formation built by the 
action of the coral polyps. In fact, the reef is constantly 
being added to. The reef -building polyps generally 
live in water less than one hundred feet deep, and in 
the warm parts of the ocean. They extract carbonate 
of lime from the sea water and build it into hard out- 
side skeletons for their jelly-like bodies. The polyps 
live in communities, and as they die their skeletons are 
broken from those of the live polyps and piled up by the 
waves. Floating seaweed or driftwood may here find 
a lodgment. Little by little as a reef rises above the 
water, soil is formed and vegetation takes possession. 



* 

MARIANNE ". 



."GUAN 
(TO U.S 




tasmIania'T" 



Hobact^ 



90 c Loniitude 100° East 110° from 120° Greenwich 130° 



KAUAI ^ fa^'Si. 




ISoiith C a pe STEWART 



800 1000 
Cities with over 200,000 Manila 

dtiea .witk ioo.ooo to 200,000 Adelaide 

'Cities with 50,000 to 100,000 Dunedin, 

Smaller Places — Goulburn 

^Christ Chnrnh*' &. r-L, Capitals with less than 50,000 HOBAKT 

^Dunedin / (e " > / Ca P itals ® 



Other Cities o 



Railroacls • 



180 Longitude 



150° Greenwich 



THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 3 

The corals are of various forms, and they are given 
names to correspond. For example, there is brain coral, 
chain coral, cup coral, mushroom coral, and other kinds. 
The coral of which the reef is composed is white and has 
no commercial value. Red coral is found in deeper 
water and is quite valuable. 

In Australia, as in the other continents, the highest 
mountains face the Pacific Ocean. Nowhere in Aus- 
tralia are there mountains which approach in altitude 
the most lofty peaks in the other continents. You 
remember that even in the equatorial parts of Africa 
and South America there are mountains upon which 
glaciers are found. There are no glaciers in Australia, 
although in times past there were. 

The highest mountains of the continent are known 
as the Dividing Range. These extend from Cape 
York in the north to the extreme south. Local names 
are applied in the various sections through which they 
pass. The most lofty division is in the southeast, 
where the term Australian Alps is used. 

Mountains extend parallel to the west coast for 
several hundred miles, and there are scattered ranges 
in the interior. The most important of these are the 
McDonnell and the Musgrave ranges. They are not 
high enough to cause any considerable amount of rain- 
fall, however. 

East of the mountains that run parallel with the 



OCEANIA 



WIS 

•.oh 



"> U' 



^ 




-v.t 




sag < k J r S4 



t;V 



*t|j 



I. 






'■Z^§^h. ** 



U 



I 



■^' 



Bar' 



**** 



* j 



HO, I" 






V * 




THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 5 

Pacific coast, there is, as the map indicates, a coastal 
plain. The eastern slope of the mountains is so steep 
that for many years no white man crossed them. 
The necessity of finding new pasturage for stock dur- 
ing years of little rainfall finally led the settlers to push 
beyond the mountain wall. 

From the mountains westward the slope is quite 
gentle, and much of southeastern Australia is low and 
flat and is at times flooded. Owing to the extreme 
aridity, the interior is not yet fully explored, but much 
of it is known to be uninhabitable. 

Not only are the mountains of Australia lower than 
those of other continents, but its rivers are smaller and 
less numerous. In fact there is but one long river in the 
whole continent, the Murray- Darling. Although this 
is one of the long rivers of the world, it is on the dry 
side of the mountains and therefore is not great as to 
volume. During the dry season, it carries little water. 

The Murray-Darling draws its supply of water from 
the melting snows which cover the highest peaks in 
the Australian Alps for several months each year, and 
from the abundant rainfall in the same section. When 
the snow is melting most rapidly, the river is in flood ; 
for, as has been said, much of the basin is low, flat land. 
During this season, the river is navigable for a consider- 
able distance. 

As the eastern mountains are so close to the coast, 



6 OCEANIA 

the streams that flow to the Pacific Ocean are short and 
swift. Some of them carry considerable water. For 
more than 1000 miles along the south coast not a river 
reaches the sea. The largest stream in the interior is 
Cooper River , which empties into Lake Eyre. While 
this river is several times as long as the Hudson, it is 
an intermittent stream. The lack of rivers has always 
been a serious obstacle to the development of Australia. 

As in Africa, central Asia, and the Great Basin of 
North America, such streams as exist in the interior 
of Australia empty into sinks and lakes, most of which 
are salt or brackish. The largest of these lakes are 
Torrens, Gairdner, Eyre, Amadeus, Frome, and Greg- 
ory. Even these bodies of water are reduced to the 
condition of swamps or mudholes during the dry season. 

Australia lies partly in the torrid and partly in the 
south temperate zone. A considerable part of the 
continent is, therefore, in the belt of southeast trade 
winds. These winds ; blowing from the water to the 
land, are moisture laden. As they come in contact 
with the eastern mountains, abundant rainfall results. 
At many places on the eastern slope, the rainfall is 
more than fifty inches per year. This, together with 
the relatively high temperature, produces luxuriant 
vegetation, including fine forests. 

Beyond the Australian Alps the rainfall conditions 
are very different. The dense forests with their palms, 



THfi CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 




8 OCEANIA 

ferns, flowers, and flowing streams disappear. There 
are park-like expanses where the Australian gum, or 
eucalyptus, tree that sends its roots very deeply into 
the earth grows. These areas give place to pasture 
lands ; the pastures give place to districts covered 
with a thorny vegetation called " scrub" ; and these in 
turn to the desert region, where the rainfall is still less. 
More than one half of the continent receives less than 
twenty inches of rainfall per year. How does this 
affect agriculture ? 

Along the southwestern coast, owing to the influence 
of the mountains and to the prevailing westerlies, there 
is considerable rainfall, amounting to from twenty to 
thirty inches annually. 

The great variation in rainfall from year to year 
is a very serious matter. When an unusually dry 
year or a series of dry years occurs, the cattle and sheep 
cannot find sufficient pasturage. At such times the 
stock men suffer very great loss. The people of Aus- 
tralia have had several such experiences. 

The climate of Australia is very healthful. This is 
because of the absence of great jungles and swamps 
such as exist in central Africa. Owing to the in- 
fluence of the ocean, the coastal regions, which is 
where most of the population is found, do not have 
the high temperatures that occur in the interior. 
At Sydney the average annual temperature is about 



THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 9 

63° F. This is about the same as that of San Diego, 
California. 

The plant and animal life of Australia is very 
peculiar. Of the many forms of plants, the larger 
number are not native to other parts of the world. 
This suggests that for a very long time this conti- 
nent has been separated from all other land areas. 
While man can carry seeds and plants from one part 
of the world to another, nature usually finds it very 
difficult to do this, if lofty mountains or large bodies 
of water intervene. 

Among the curious trees is the eucalyptus already 
mentioned. This tree can endure a dry climate. Its 
roots will penetrate the hard earth for many feet, and 
its leaves hang vertically instead of horizontally. This 
position reduces the loss of moisture by them. The 
trees shed their ragged bark yearly instead of their 
leaves. Usually the trunks have no branches for many 
feet above the ground, and such as they do have extend 
upward rather than outward. Such a tree shades but 
a small area. 

Because the eucalyptus is adapted to a dry climate 
and because it is a rapid grower, man has taken it 
into various arid parts of the world. Countless thou- 
sands are now grown for fuel in California and South 
Africa. There are very many species of this tree, some 
of which are used as piles because they resist the action 



10 



OCEANIA 




THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 11 

of the toredo, a water animal that bores into wood. 
Others are used in ship and house building. From 
one kind a valuable oil is made. Some eucalyptus 
trees grow to immense size. In southeastern Australia 
actual measurement has shown that a height of more 
than four hundred feet is occasionally attained. In 
what part of North America do the largest trees grow ? 

The acacia tree is very numerous also. There are 
many varieties; some of which have beautiful yellow 
blossoms which are very fragrant. Some of the scrub 
consists of dwarf forms of the eucalyptus and the 
acacia. The acacia is armed with thorns, and it is 
almost impossible for people to make their way through 
such a growth. The bark of certain of the acacia trees 
is used in tanning leather. 

With some of the forms of vegetation you are famil- 
iar. In the moist coastal sections of the east and north 
the mangrove, bamboo, palm, cocoanut, banana, and 
fern are common. 

The animals of Australia are even more interesting 
than are the plants, and a large number of them are 
not found elsewhere. The elephant, rhinoceros, hip- 
popotamus, zebra, giraffe, and lion of Africa are not 
found. The bear, deer, elk, and buffalo of North 
America do not exist here. 

You have seen, at the circus or in some park, a kan- 
garoo. When the white people settled in Australia, 



12 



OCEANIA 



countless numbers of these animals lived there. The 
natives used them for food. Some kinds of kangaroos 
grow to a height of from five to six feet, and others are 

scarcely larger than a 
large rat. They carry 
their young in a pouch 
on the under side of 
the bodv. 

An animal called 
the dingo, which is 
believed by some to 
be a wild dog, was 
formerly very destruc- 
tive of sheep. It is 
now nearlv extermi- 
nated. The duckbill 
is another very strange 
creature. It has a bill 
and feet like those of a duck, but its tail resembles 
that of a beaver. It lays eggs, but it nurses its young. 
The jungle fowl, or scrub hen, builds a great mound of 
leaves, sticks, and dirt, in the center of which several 
of the birds lay their eggs. The eggs are then left to 
be hatched by the heat which results from the decay- 
ing vegetation. Both the eggs and the birds are good 
to eat. 
There are swans that are black instead of white . 




Photograph by E. R. Sanborn, New York 
Zoological Society. 

Fig. 5. — A Kangaroo. 



THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 



13 




14 OCEANIA 

There are parrakeets, cockatoos, emus, which are 
practically wingless, beautiful lyre birds, and many 
other strange forms. 

Years ago rabbits were introduced from England. 
They multiplied rapidly and came to be a very great 
pest. Thousands of miles of woven- wire fence have 
been put up to prevent the spread of the animals. 
During the winter when there is comparatively little 
work on the farms, men and boys hunt and trap them. 
Shiploads of frozen rabbits are exported to the British 
Isles for table use. The skins are valuable, also, and 
are used extensively by American hat manufacturers. 

Another animal that has been introduced is the 
camel. It is a very helpful creature and is extensively 
employed in transporting goods across the desert 
areas. Camels were first used in Australia in the 
construction of a telegraph and telephone line in 1872. 
As there were neither cattle nor sheep in Australia, 
the English imported these animals also. Cattle and 
sheep raising are now very important industries. 

Wheat will do well in regions where the rainfall is 
not great, and Australia produces large quantities cf 
wheat, excellent in quality. During some years there 
is much wheat exported, and during very dry years 
wheat is imported. Oats, corn, barley, and potatoes 
are grown wherever there is sufficient rainfall. 

In Queensland considerable sugar is grown, and upon 



THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 15 

the well- watered lowlands bananas thrive. In the 
southeastern part of the continent oranges, olives, and 
grapes do well. There wines and raisins are made. 
Owing to the lack of rain, only a small part of the total 
area can be cultivated. 

Lands deficient in rainfall are often important in 
the raising of sheep and cattle. This is true of Aus- 
tralia. Upon her great extent of pasture lands prob- 
ably 100,000,000 sheep graze, and she is the greatest 
wool-producing country in the world. Australian wool 
is the finest wool produced in the world, and is exported 
to Europe and to the United States. 

Although there are great numbers of cattle, they are 
not so numerous as are sheep, for the latter can graze 
where cattle cannot find sufficient nourishment. 
Queensland is the most important state in the cattle 
industry. The animals are handled about as they 
are on our great cattle ranches. Beef, hides, butter, 
and cheese are exported. 

The sheep and cattle men of Australia live upon 
very large estates called " stations." There are gen- 
erally many thousands of acres in a station. Many 
of the owners have beautiful homes with all of the 
modern conveniences. Comparatively few men are 
required to handle a large number of sheep or cattle. 
This is one of the several reasons why the population 
of the continent is not greater. 



16 



OCEANIA 



In 1851 gold was discovered in Australia by a Mr. 
Hargraves who had worked in the gold mines of Cali- 
fornia. A rush followed similar to that which took 




Courtesy F. T. A. F/icke, Government Representative from Victoria, Australia. 
Fig. 7. — A Prospector Panning for Gold. 



place in California, in South Africa, and in Alaska. 
For several years from 40,000 to 100,000 persons 
flocked to the gold fields } T early. While much of the 
excitement of the early days has died out, Australia 
is one of the chief gold-producing sections of the world. 



THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 17 

In addition to gold, Australia produces silver, copper, 
tin, and coal in large amounts. Newcastle is the chief 
coal-exporting center. Locate it and locate the city 
of the same name in England. Various other forms of 
mineral wealth have been discovered, among them 
diamonds. 

Considerable manufacturing is carried on in Australia, 
but the manufacturing is chiefly for the home market. 
There are sawmills, tanneries, flour mills, sugar mills, 
jam factories, shipbuilding plants, woolen mills, and 
various other establishments. 

In 1911 the total mileage of railroad was about 18,000, 
and it is steadily increasing. The first railroad was 
constructed in 1854 in Victoria. Naturally most of 
the roads are comparatively close to the coast. As 
settlement is pushed farther into the interior, the rail- 
roads follow. The utilization of areas previously 
considered too dry to be of value, is in part due to the 
development of artesian water. In many sections 
where little rain falls, artesian water can be secured at 
depths varying from 150 to 5000 feet. From practi- 
cally every city on the eastern coast and from some on 
the western, railroads lead to the towns farther inland. 
You will see by the map that there is not a railroad 
between Spencer Gulf and Albany. Explain this. 
Practically all of the roads belong to the government, 
and as a result both freight and passenger rates are low. 



18 OCEANIA 

The natives of Australia are small, lacking in intelli- 
gence, and not very energetic. Even when the whites 
first landed, there were comparatively few natives; 
and this, together with the fact that they are not very 
warlike, made it easy for the Europeans to subdue them. 
Many of the natives had no fixed place of abode but 
wandered from place to place in search of food. A 
weapon common to many of them is the boomerang. 
This is a short, curved instrument of wood which can 
be thrown in such a way as to cause it to return to the 
thrower. The number of natives has decreased rapidly 
since the English settled in Australia. Many of the 
survivors are employed on the farms. The native 
Tasmanians are now extinct. 

Australia was discovered by the Portuguese in 1530, 
but neither they nor the Dutch, who later visited the 
land, made settlements. In 1770 Captain Cook visited 
the eastern shore, and his glowing accounts of what 
he had seen led to the first settlement eight years later. 
The first European settlers were convicts sent out by 
the government of England. 

The first colony or state established was New South 
Wales, but later others were formed. On January 
1, 1901, the Commonwealth of Australia was or- 
ganized after deliberations lasting a number of years. 
This movement was similar to the one resulting in 
the organization of the Dominion of Canada. Just 



THE CONTINENT OF AUSTRALIA 19 

as Newfoundland refused to join the Dominion, so 
New Zealand declined to become a part of the Common- 
wealth. Including Tasmania, Australia consists of 
six states and one territory. How many are there in 
our country ? 

A federal district, similar to our District of Colum- 
bia, has been established in New South Wales. It is 
about two hundred miles southwest of Sydney. The 
capital city, which will be called Canberra, will be 
located upon the Molonglo River. Except on the 
north and northeast, the valley in which the capital is 
situated is inclosed by mountains. 

The Australian people plan to have one of the great- 
est capitals in the world. In the drawing of the plans 
architects from many countries competed. The prize 
was won. by a young man living in Chicago. 

In no other continent is such a large proportion of 
the people of one nationality. Practically all of the 
population is English. The continent is a part of the 
British Empire. Name other areas which are parts of 
the British Empire. "A continent for a people, and a 
people for a continent " is an expression frequently 
heard in Australia. 



20 OCEANIA 

In the Ranges of Australia 

Through a dark cleft between two hills 

A narrow passage leads the way 

Close by a lonely lake ; two rills, 

Its children, sing the livelong day, 

And from the water's lapping edge 

The low tones of the long reeds come — 

No other sound, save in the sedge 

A black swan crooning ; all the heights are dumb. 

Beyond, a wooded gully lies — 

A greenstone on the topaz plain ; 

In its deep shade no glaring skies 

E'er shine, so thick are overlain 

The branches of the ancient trees ; 

Within its depths the lyre bird hides, 

And, save at mid-noon, never cease 

The bell birds singing where the streamlet glides. 

Far off, on higher uplands grow 

The spicy gum and hardy box, 

The delicate acacias throw 

The feather leafings o'er the rocks, 

And gray-green mistletoe doth creep 

Till tree by tree is overlaid — 

While in the noonday stillness sleep 

The bright rosellas 'mid the wild vine's shade. 

— William Sharp. 



CHAPTER II 

QUEENSLAND 

The area of Queensland is more than three times 
that of the German Empire. The distance from Cape 
York to Brisbane , the capital of the state, is greater 
than the distance from New York to Chicago. Vast 
as is the area of Queensland, its population was in 1911 
but 605,813. There are several cities in Germany, 
each one of which has a larger population. 

As a part of Queensland is in the torrid and a part 
in the south temperate zone, the climate of the different 
sections varies considerably. The northern part is 
in the belt of southeast trade winds, and is better 
watered than is the southern part. As the Dividing 
Range causes abundant precipitation upon its eastern 
slopes, the interior of the country receives less rain 
than does the coastal plain. 

At Geraldton, on the northeast coast, the precipita- 
tion averages one hundred and forty-five inches per 
year. The average at Brisbane is nearly fifty inches 
annually. 

In the northern district the temperature is, of course, 
higher than it is in the south. In the tropical section 

21 



22 



OCEANIA 



bananas, oranges, lemons, tea, coffee, sugar, rubber, 
cocoa, rice, and pineapples are among the products. 
In the more temperate sections wheat, corn, oats, pota- 
toes, and similar crops are grown. 

Upon the mountains and plateaus the temperature 
is lower than it is upon the coastal plain or in the 




Fig. 8. — A View in Queensland. 

interior. As much of the country is in equatorial 
latitudes, and as the mountains are not very high, 
there is nowhere in Queensland any very cold weather. 
Much of the plateau district which lies west of the 
mountains is, during ordinary years, covered with 
rich grass. Because of this, large numbers of horses, 



QUEENSLAND 23 

sheep, and cattle are raised. West of Brisbane the 
plateau is known as the Darling Downs. This sec- 
tion, which has an altitude varying from 1500 to 2000 
feet, was once the scene of great volcanic activity. 
That was long ago, and the lava has been converted 
into a deep, rich soil. As the rainfall is sufficient, there 
is excellent pasturage and the area also produces splen- 
did crops of grain and fruit. The chief town is Too- 
woomba. Locate it. 

As in the dryer districts, the rainfall cannot always 
be depended upon, and the people have therefore 
drilled many artesian wells. In 1911 there were 1600 
of them. Water obtained from these wells is stored in 
reservoirs and tanks. This has been a great help to 
stock men and to farmers. 

The Pacific coastal plain was once covered with 
timber, and some of it remains. As there is a demand 
for timber both at home and in Europe, many saw- 
mills have been established. Much of the land that 
has been cleared is now under cultivation. About 
nine per cent of the total area of the state is forested. 
There are eucalyptus, tulip, rosewood, red cedar, and, 
upon the highlands, beech, and pine. 

Queensland has much mineral wealth. Of the va- 
rious minerals gold is the most important. This was 
discovered in 1858. Copper, silver, tin, and coal 
exist in considerable quantities. 



24 



OCEANIA 




QUEENSLAND 25 

The map shows you that there are several railroad 
lines in the state. The total mileage was in 1911 a 
little more than 4000. In the German Empire there 
are more than 38,000 miles. Why is there such a 
difference? Lack of sufficient roads is a serious hin- 
drance to development. There are large areas where, 
at the present time, crops cannot be profitably grown 
because of this lack. As the rivers are short, they 
help very little in this matter. 

In common with the other Australian states, the cities 
are nearly all on or near the coast. At Mackay and 
Bundaberg sugar is manufactured. Rockhampton and 
Gladstone draw upon a large area and export wool 
and meat. Considerable lumber is shipped from 
Marysborough. 

The one large city of the state is Brisbane. It is 
situated upon the river of the same name, about twenty- 
five miles from the sea. Although founded in 1825 
its population was in 1911 but 139,480. Small vessels 
ascend to the capital, but large ones stop at Pinkenba, 
nine miles below. The two cities are connected by rail. 

Brisbane owes its importance in part to the fact 
that it is a market for products of the Darling Downs. 
It is the terminus of two important railroad lines, one 
extending nearly west and the other south. Its exports 
are extensive, the chief being wool, meat, hides, skins, 
and butter. 



CHAPTER III 

NEW SOUTH WALES 

The oldest of the Australian states is New South 
Wales. Its area is not nearly so great as that of Queens- 
land, but it is much more favorably situated, being 
entirely in the south temperate zone. Because of 
its situation, its climate is much better adapted to 
white people than is the climate of Queensland. The 
population is, therefore, more dense. In 1912 it was 
1,738,600. 

The distance of the mountains from the coast varies 
from thirty to more than one hundred miles. The 
altitude is about the same as that of our Appalachian 
Mountains. The highest peak, Mt. Kosciusko, is close 
to the boundary between New South Wales and Vic- 
toria. Its summit is 7300 feet above sea level. 

The Australian Alps and the Blue Mountains are 
names applied to the mountains of this state. Some 
of the scenery is very beautiful. Just as the mountains 
in the eastern part of our country hindered for a long 
time the westward movement of the population, so 
the mountains of New South Wales confined the people 

26 



NEW SOUTH WALES 



27 




28 



OCEANIA 



to the coastal plain until 1815. To-day, as the map 
shows you, railroads cross the mountains. 

The coastal plain is well watered, and here, therefore, 
most of the towns and cities are located. Across the 
plain many rivers flow ; but they are short and swift, 




Fig. 11. 



Courtesy Immigration and Tourist Bureau, Sydney. 
A Wheat Field in New South Wales. 



the largest being navigable for a short distance only. 
The Hunter, at the mouth of which Newcastle is situ- 
ated, and the Hawkesbury are the most important of 
the east-flowing streams. The only large river basin 
in the state is that of the Murray-Darling, which is on 
the west slope. 

The fertile soil, the moderate temperature, and the 



NEW SOUTH WALES 29 

abundant rainfall on the eastern slope make agricul- 
ture a profitable industry. On the warmer lowlands 
oranges, lemons, sugar, and other semi-tropical crops 
are produced. The rich pasture lands cause dairying 
to be an important occupation. On the plateaus 
where lower temperatures prevail, the fruits and grains 
of the temperate zone flourish. Upon the western 
slope where rainfall is light, there are extensive wheat 
fields ; and in the regions where precipitation is insuffi- 
cient for agriculture, great numbers of sheep graze. 

West of the mountains there is a large area where 
artesian water is obtained. One of the wells is more 
than 4000 feet in depth. A small charge is made for 
watering the sheep, cattle, horses, and camels which 
are driven through the region. 

Australia enjoys a great advantage in marketing her 
fruits in Europe. This is due to the fact that her 
seasons are the opposite, as to time of occurrence, of 
those in the northern hemisphere. When the countries 
of Europe are experiencing their winter, the states of 
Australia are having summer. Fruits, therefore, com- 
mand high prices in the European markets. The 
same is true of butter. 

New South Wales is the chief wool-producing state 
in Australia. The largest number of sheep are found 
where the yearly rainfall varies from 10 to 20 inches. 
If there is too much rainfall, the sheep are liable to 



30 



OCEANIA 




NEW SOUTH WALES 31 

disease. If it is too warm, the fleece is not heavy 
enough to be profitable. Millions of sheep are pas- 
tured west of the mountains, and wool is the leading 
export of the country. The sheep are now generally 
sheared by machinery, and consequently the work is 
done very rapidly. Because the wool is so excellent 
in quality, buyers from many of the countries of Europe, 
as well as from the United States, visit New South 
Wales each year. 

There is much mineral wealth in New South Wales. 
Broken Hill, near the western boundary, is in a region 
rich in gold. Because of this, a railroad has been 
constructed from Port Pirie, on the east shore of Spencer 
Gulf, to Broken Hill. 

There are great deposits of coal in the state. In 
the Newcastle fields there are many coal seams, each 
several feet in thickness. As there is no very great 
demand for coal in the home markets, considerable 
is exported from Newcastle. Locate Newcastle, Eng- 
land. 

Newcastle, which is at the mouth of the Hunter 
River, was named in memory of Newcastle, England. 
It has deep water and thus can ship its coal to advan- 
tage. The state has valuable deposits of iron, copper, 
and tin. In 1912 the value of all minerals produced 
was approximately $50,000,000. 

Sydney, the capital, is the oldest city on the con- 



32 



OCEANIA 



tinent, having been founded in 1788. It is situated 
on an arm of the sea called the Parametta River on 
the south side of Port Jackson. Port Jackson is one 
of the best harbors in the world. It is a part of a 
drowned valley and is large, land-locked, and deep. 




Courtesy Immigration and Tourist Bureau, Sydney. 
Fig. 13. — Circular Quay, Sydney. 



The entrance to the harbor is about one mile in width. 
Powerful lights, which are visible for many miles, 
guide the incoming vessels safely to the wharves. 
Many millions of dollars are now being expended in 
improving harbor conditions in Sydney. 

Sydney is built upon the hills that slope down to the 
shore, and it has a very picturesque situation. The 



NEW SOUTH WALES 



33 



older streets are narrow and crooked. As the under- 
lying rock is of sandstone, most of the buildings are 




Courtesy Immigration and Tourist Bureau, Sydney. 



Fig. 14. — George Street, Sydney. 

constructed of this material. There are electric lights, 
electric cars, and all of the modern conveniences. 

The mean annual temperature of Sydney is about 
the same as that of San Diego, California (63° F.) ; but 
its rainfall is about five times as great, averaging nearly 



34 OCEANIA 

fifty inches yearly. Owing to the greater humidity, 
the heat is more oppressive than it is in dryer places. 

Sydney is the railroad center of New South Wales. 
There are deposits of coal directly beneath the city 
as well as in the surrounding area. Thus, ships can 
be cheaply supplied with coal here. 

As a wool market, Sydney ranks first in Australia, 
and it is one of the most important in the world. It 
is the one great port of New South Wales. Its trade 
is chiefly with the British Isles, for most of its exports 
are in demand there. The most important are wool, 
mutton, wheat, butter, wine, coal. Which one of 
these is not sent to the British Isles ? According to the 
census of 1911, it was the largest city in Australia, hav- 
ing a population of 629,503. Name a cit^in the south- 
ern hemisphere that has a greater population. About 
one third of the total population of New South Wales 
is found in Sydney. 

"City of laughing loveliness, Sun-girdled Queen 
Crowned with imperial morning, bejeweled with joy, 
Raimented soft like a bride, in virginal sheen, 
Veiled in luminous mist, blushing maidenly coy 
In shyly opening dawntide of youthful-sweet beauty : — 
Earth, and Air, and the Heavens, and wondering Ocean 
salute thee." 

— Marshall Hall in "Hymn to Sydney." 



CHAPTER IV 



THE " GARDEN STATE " 



Victoria is the smallest of the states on the main- 
land of Australia ; yet its total population is second to- 
that of New South Wales only. This is because the 
climate is cooler than it is farther north ; the rainfall 
is, in a large section, sufficient for agriculture, and a 
great deal of the land is tillable. It is because Victoria 
is so well adapted to agriculture that it is often called 
the Garden State. 

The mountains of Victoria are from fifty to seventy- 
five miles from the sea. Their highest peaks are a 
little more than 6000 feet in altitude and are snow cov- 
ered for several months each year. The melting snow 
supplies considerable water to the streams. 

..The mountains divide the state into two climatic 
areas. In the southern the rainfall is greater than 
it is in the northern and, owing to the influence of the 
ocean, there is not so great a range in temperature. 
January and February are the hottest months. 

Wheat farming, fruit growing, and dairying are im- 
portant industries. In the dryer districts many sheep 

35 



36 



or n ax i a 




THE "GARDEN STATE' 1 



37 



and cattle arc raised. Gold, wool, meat, wheat, fruits, 
butter, and cheese are the important exports. 




Courtesy F. T. A. Fricfce, Government Representative from Victoria. 
Fig. 16. — Delivering Cream to a Butter Factory in Victoria, Australia. 

There is a great deal of mineral wealth in Victoria. 
The state has produced much more gold than has 
any other state in the Commonwealth. Ballarat and 
Sandhurst are both situated in rich gold-producing 
sections, and they owe their importance chiefly to this 
fact. Near Ballarat a nugget known as the " Wel- 
come" was found. It was sold for about $50,000. In 
addition to gold, Victoria produces some silver, copper, 
tin, coal, building stones, and clays. 



38 



OCEANIA 




THE "GARDEN STATE" 39 

Victoria's great city is Melbourne. It is the capital 
and is situated upon a large bay called Port Phillip. 
A man named Guy Fawkner was the first settler. He 
built a house in 1835. At that time the place where 
the city now stands was covered by a forest. 

^A narrow entrance leads into the great deep bay. 
Melbourne, which is about forty miles from the en- 
trance, is located at the mouth of the Yarra River. 
The city has an outer harbor at Williamstown, about 
five miles distant, where the largest ships load and 
unload ; but vessels drawing twenty-two feet of water 
can reach the city. 

The view which , one gets of Victoria's capital in 
approaching by water is very attractive. The city 
is built upon rolling hills, and beautiful homes are 
seen along the shores of the bay. Many ships are at 
the wharves, loading and unloading their cargoes. 
About ninety per cent of the trade of Victoria passes 
through this port. Melbourne draws its water supply 
from mountains known as the Plenty Ranges, some 
sixty miles away. The supply is pure and abundant. 

Although Melbourne is a young city it has splendid 
buildings, very broad streets, and beautiful parks and 
gardens. It is because of these things that it is some- 
times called " Melbourne, the Magnificent." In popu- 
lation it is the second city on the continent, having, 
in 1911, nearly 600,000 people. 



40 



OCEANIA 



pr « * , 



%'-V- : - I 



Ml'B' 




© Underwood and Underwood. 
Fig. 18. — A View of Melbourne. 



CHAPTER V 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA 

The state of South Australia has a very great area 
but a relatively small population. The small popu- 
lation is due to the fact that a large part of the country 
is quite dry. Most of the people live in the southern 
part of the state , because there the rainfall is most 
abundant. 

The larger part of South Australia is low land, but 
near the northern border the Musgrave and McDonnell 
ranges reach an altitude of several thousand feet. 
Some of the mountains are much-eroded volcanoes. 

Like the other states of the Commonwealth, South 
Australia is deficient in permanent streams. It has 
a number of lakes, most of which are dry for a part of 
the year. Lake Eyre, the largest, is about thirty feet 
below the level of the sea. 

The rainy season occurs between March and July, 
but June and July are the wettest months. In the 
neighborhood of Lake Eyre, the average annual rain- 
fall is only about five inches. At Adelaide the average 
annual rainfall, covering a period of more than fifty 

41 



42 OCEANIA 

years, is twenty-one inches. As the rainfall in the 
interior is so slight, agriculture is almost entirely con- 
fined to the southeastern coastal region. A very small 
part of the total area is tilled. 

Wheat is an important crop, for this can be grown 
successfully in a rather dry region. Considerable 
wine is produced and some is exported. The sheep 
industry is the chief one, however. Mutton and wool 
are exported in large amounts. In 1911 there were in 
the state more than 6,000,000 sheep. 

Copper was discovered in 1846. This discovery 
attracted many people to South Australia. 

The one large city in the state is Adelaide, the 
capital. It was founded in 1836 and named in honor 
of Queen Adelaide, the wife of William IV of England. 
The city is situated on a plain about five miles from 
the. sea, and is divided by the Torrens River into two 
parts. The south side is the business section of the 
city, and the north side is largely residential. Just 
east of the city Mt. Lofty rises to the altitude of 2400 
feet. 

Adelaide has a number of ports. To the northwest 
is Port Adelaide, to the southwest is Glenelg, and to 
the south Victor Harbor. A railroad connects the 
capital with the town of Morgan situated on the Murray 
River. 

The streets of Adelaide are broad, and from the city 



SOUTH AUSTRALIA 



43 





< 



3 
O 

m 



T3 



Zfl 



44 OCEANIA 

a good view can be had of the Gulf of St. Vincent to 
the west and of hills on the south and east. The water 
supply is obtained from reservoirs on the hills. The 
chief manufactures are woolen and leather goods, iron 
and earthenware. In 1911 the population of Adelaide 
was 189 ; 646. 



CHAPTER VI 



WESTERN AUSTRALIA 



The map shows you that Western Australia extends 
entirely across the continent from north to south. 
Use the scale and find how many miles this represents. 

The area of the state is 975,920 square miles. It 
nearly five times as large as France, and yet its total 

population in 1912 was only about 300,000. The 

vast expanse of desert in the interior of Australia outs 
off communication by land between Western Australia 
and the other states. This is a serious disadvantage. 

The Darling Mountains extend parallel to the western 
coast. Although their highest peaks are only about 
1500 feet in altitude, they take considerable moisture 
from the west winds. The Stirling Mountains north 
of Albany reach a greater elevation. 

The latitude of the state is 13° to 35° south, and 
therefore most of the area is in the torrid zone. The 
northern part is quite warm, but the southern part has 
a very agreeable climate. February is the warmesl 
month. 

The rainy season is from May to September. The 
southwestern part of the state is the wettest. In some 

J5 



46 



OCEANIA 



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WESTERN AUSTRALIA 47 

places the average annual precipitation is 50 inches 
or more. At Perth the average is 33 inches, but in 
the north it is much less. 

Owing to the tropical climate, oranges and lemons 
thrive along the west central coast in a belt extending 
eastward from the sea for a distance of thirty to forty 
miles. In the southwestern part of the state apples, 
pears, peaches, plums, cherries, figs, and grapes do well. 
Fruits are exported to the British Isles in considerable 
quantities, the time required for transportation being 
several days less than that from the other states. 

Wheat is the chief farm crop ; but barley, oats, corn, 
and potatoes are grown. Rabbits do much damage 
to crops, and rabbit-proof fences many miles in length 
have been built east of the cultivated area. 

Western Australia produces much gold and in addi- 
tion some silver, copper, lead, iron, and tin. One of the 
richest gold fields in Australia is located about 400 
miles east of Perth. The rich deposits of gold led to 
the development of the towns of Coolgardie and Kal- 
goorlie and other less important places. In addition, 
the gold resulted in the construction of a railroad from 
Perth to the gold fields. 

In 1891 Coolgardie was founded. In 1911 it had a 
population of about 2000. Kalgoorlie is two years 
younger than Coolgardie, but in 1911 its population 
exceeded 8000. As these and other towns developed, 



48 



OCEANIA 




WESTERN AUSTRALIA 49 

it was seen that an adequate supply of water must be 
obtained from some source. It was decided to pipe 
water from a point near Perth, some 300 miles distant. 
Through a system of pipes water is now pumped to 
thirty-six towns. The work was commenced in 1896 
and completed in 1903. Water is stored in an immense 
reservoir. This is a striking illustration of the fact that 
man often overcomes unfavorable geographical environ- 
ment. Can you name another locality where water 
is piped a long distance across a desert? 

Perth, the capital of Western Australia, is situated 
upon the Swan River twelve miles from the sea. At 
the point where the city is located, the river expands 
into a lake-like form. As the river does not admit 
the largest ships, Perth has an outer port at Freemantle. 
It has rail connections with this port. The city 
obtains its water supply from the Darling Mountains 
about twenty miles distant. At Perth is located a 
branch of the Royal Mint. In the neighborhood of 
Perth there are a number of towns constituting a 
metropolitan area, the total population of which was, 
in 1911, about 100,000. 



50 



OCEANIA 




CHAPTER VII 

NORTHERN TERRITORY 

Until January 1, 1911, South Australia extended 
entirely across the continent from south to north. 
The northern part of this vast area is now called North- 
ern Territory. Its relation to the Australian states 
is similar to the relation of Alaska to our states. 

Although Northern Territory is twice as large as 
Texas, it is almost entirely an undeveloped country. 
The total population was only about 5000 in 1911, less 
than 1500 of whom were white persons. Owing to 
the high temperature and the great humidity, the 
climate in the northern part is not favorable to white 
laborers. The rainfall at Port Darwin averages about 
sixty-three inches per year, and the temperature 82° F. 
In the southern part there is so little rain that agricul- 
ture cannot be extensively carried on. 

Because of the rain and the high temperature there 
are extensive forests in the north. In the future these 
will be of much value. Rubber will probably be an 
important product. The climatic conditions favor 
the growth of sugar cane, and much sugar could be 
produced if labor were available. The people of 

51 



52 OCEANIA 

Australia do not desire other than white labor, how- 
ever. 

There is considerable gold in the territory, and min- 
ing is one of the leading industries. Alan)' people 
are engaged in cattle and buffalo raising, and some in 
pearl and turtle fishing. The buffaloes are raised for 
their hides, which are used in the manufacture of belts. 

In 1872 a telegraph line connecting Adelaide and 
Port Darwin was completed. This line is 1700 miles 
long. It was very difficult and costly to build, because 
so much of the country through which it extends is 
a desert. The first poles, which were of wood, were 
destroyed by white ants ; and poles of iron were sub- 
stituted. 

There are no large towns in the territory. Darwin, 
the capital, and Palmerston are the most important. 
A railroad is to be built which will connect Port Dar- 
win with the railway system of South Australia. 



CHAPTER VIII 

TASMANIA 

The waters of Bass Strait, more than 100 miles in 
width, separate the mainland of Australia from its 
smallest state, Tasmania. The island was discovered 




Courtesy Immigration and Intelligence Branch, Department of 
Agriculture and Stock, Hobart. 

Fig. 23. — Cape Pillar, Tasman Peninsula. 

by the Dutch navigator Tasman in 1642, but he did 
not know that the land was an island. The first white 
settlers were English convicts, and from 1803 to 1853 

53 



54 OCEANIA 

Tasmania was an English convict station. This 
island was once called Van Diemen's Land. 

Tasmania is a country of beautiful scenery. Much 
of the island is quite mountainous. Xot far from the 
western coast are mountains, the highest peaks of 
which are between 4000 and 5000 feet in altitude. 
In the central part there is a plateau from 2000 to 
3000 feet above sea level. The Great Western Moun- 
tains form the northeastern boundary of the plateau. 

In earlier times volcanoes were active in Tasmania 
and much lava was poured out upon the surface. 
Through the process of weathering a great deal of the 
lava has been converted into a fertile soil. 

The rivers are short and swift and will sometime 
furnish much power for manufacturing. The most 
important are the Derwent in the south and the Tamar 
in the north. Other smaller but beautiful streams 
are the Mersey, Arthur, Gordon, and Huon. On the 
plateau there are many beautiful lakes. Great Lake, 
Arthur Lake, Lake St. Clair, and Lake Echo are the 
most important. The rivers, waterfalls, and lakes, 
together with the delightful climate, attract many 
tourists to the plateau. 

Tasmania is situated in the belt of the prevailing 
westerlies. Owing to its position it is cooler than is 
Australia and it is well watered. Nowhere do crops 
fail because of lack of water. Except upon the highest 



TASMANIA 



55 



mountains ; there is no really cold weather; and the 
influence of the ocean prevents great extremes of tem- 
perature. During the summer, which is in December, 
January, and February, the climate attracts many 
people from the mainland of Australia. 

As the mountains have a general north to south 
trend, the western part of the island has a much heavier 




Fig. 24. 



Courtesy Immigration and Intelligence Branch, Department of 
Agriculture and Stock, Hooarl. 

An Apple Orchard in Southern Tasmania. 



rainfall than occurs on the eastern side. At several 
points on the west coast the average annual rainfall 
exceeds one hundred inches. As a result of the abun- 
dant rainfall and moderate temperature, there are valua- 
ble forests, from which lumber is one of the exports. 
The favorable climatic conditions cause the luxuriant 
growth of ferns and flowers. 



56 



OCEAXIA 




TASMANIA 57 

The climate of Tasmania is advantageous to agri- 
culture. Much of the land is too rugged for farm- 
ing, however. In the fertile valley of the Derwent ; 
hops and apples are grown extensively. The most 
celebrated apple district is the Huon valley in the 
southern part of the island. Much of this fruit is ex- 
ported to England. On the northwest coast and in the 
valley of the Mersey, potatoes are extensively grown. 

In the Midland District, where the surface is too 
rugged to encourage agriculture, large numbers of 
sheep and cattle are pastured. The quality of the 
grass leads to the production of a very excellent grade 
of mutton, much of which is exported in refrigerator 
ships to the British Isles. In 1910 there were 1,734,000 
sheep upon the island. 

Of mineral wealth Tasmania has considerable. 
Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin, iron, and coal are pro- 
duced. More tin is mined in Tasmania than on the 
mainland of Australia. 

Hobart, the capital, is situated upon the Derwent 
River about twelve miles from the coast and close to 
the base of Mt. Wellington. The largest ships can 
anchor in its harbor, owing to the great depth of the 
water. This gives the city a great commercial advan- 
tage. In the city are flour mills, railroad and bridge 
works, tanneries, and establishments for the making 
of jam. Its population in 1911 was about 40,000. 



58 



OCEANIA 




TASMANIA 59 

Launceston, which is in the northern part of 
Tasmania, on the Tamar River, is the railroad center 
of the state. From this point a railroad leads south 
to Hobart and other roads lead east and west. The 
city is some forty miles from the sea ; but the river is 
navigable to it. The scenery on both sides of the 
Tamar is beautiful. Mountains practically surround 
Launceston, giving it a .very picturesque situation. 
It is the second city in size in the state, being about 
one half as large as Hobart. 

"But always I would wish to be where the seasons gently fall, 

On the Further Isle of the Outer Sea, the last little isle of all ; 

A fair green land of hill and plain, of rivers and water- 
springs, 

Where the sun still follows after the rain, and ever the hours 
have wings, 

With its bosomed valleys where men may find retreat from 
the rough world's way. . . . 

Where the sea-wind kisses the mountain-wind between the 

dark and the day." 

— Ernest Currie. 



60 



OCEANIA 




CHAPTER IX 

NEW ZEALAND 

Have you ever wondered how New Zealand got its 
name? Zealand, or Zeeland, is a name applied to a 
part of Holland ; and Tasman, the discoverer of these 
islands, called them New Zealand. The Dutch did 
not colonize the country, and in time the English took 
possession. 

You remember that the zero meridian passes close 
to London. The meridian of 180° is but a short dis- 
tance east of the most easterly part of New Zealand. 
These islands are, therefore, on just the opposite side 
of the earth from the British Isles. New Zealand is 
not nearly so far south of the equator as the British 
Isles are north of it. The latitude of the city of Welling- 
ton is about the same as that of the city of Chicago. 

Although the islands extend in a general north-to- 
south direction for a distance of about 1000 miles, the 
influence of the surrounding water in large part over- 
comes the effect of latitude upon temperature. No 
point in the islands is more than seventy-five miles 
from the sea, and, therefore, the climate is oceanic in 
character. 

61 



62 



OCEANIA 




NEW ZEALAND 63 

New Zealand is in the west-wind belt and is well 
watered. As the main mountain axis trends from 
northeast to southwest, precipitation is much more 
abundant west of the mountains than east of them. 
On the western coast the rainfall amounts in some 
places to more than one hundred inches per year. 
At Christchurch, on the east coast, the average annual 
precipitation is but twenty-five inches. 

As a natural consequence of the plentiful supply 
of rain, forests clothe much of the land. This, of 
course, applies especially to the part west of the moun- 
tains. The forests of pine, beech, and birch are very 
valuable. Tree ferns are numerous, some of them 
being fifty feet tall. Excellent pasturage is another 
result of the abundant supply of moisture. 

Of animals, New Zealand has few that are native. 
The English have introduced deer, rabbits, and other 
animals. Owing to the isolation of the islands, some 
of the animals were not found elsewhere. An interest- 
ing illustration is the Moa, a bird now extinct, which 
was probably ten feet tall. 

The mountainous character of much of the country, 
together with the extent of forest area, has prevented 
agriculture from developing as rapidly as it otherwise 
would. Considerable wheat is grown, however, and 
the yield per acre is larger than it is in Australia or 
the United States. Dairying is important, but mut- 



64 



OCEANIA 




NEW ZEALAND 



65 



ton and wool are the chief sources of wealth. Most 
of the good pasture land is located on the east slope. 
This is an important reason for the population being 
chiefly on this same slope. 

Of minerals, gold is the most important. Its dis- 
covery caused a rush of people to the west coast. 





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Courtesy Department of Tourist and Health Resorts, Wellington. 
Fig. 30. — Maori Girls, New Zealand. 

Towns grew veiy rapidly as they did in the western 
part of our country. Some of them are now of very 
little importance. Considerable coal exists on the 
western slope of South Island. Silver, copper, iron, 
and tin are mined. 
When the English first settled in New Zealand, they 



66 OCEANIA 

found the islands in the possession of a race of people 
called the Maoris. They were very different from 
the natives of Australia. They were well developed 
physically and had made considerable progress intellec- 
tually. Although they were great fighters, they tilled 
the soil, carved wood, were good seamen, and made 
mats and garments from a native fiber. 

As in Australia, the natives have diminished greatly 
in numbers since the whites came among them. The 
Maoris are now most numerous in North Island. Some 
of them are very well educated. They own property 
and hold office just as do the white people. 

North Island 

The central and southern parts of North Island 
are very mountainous. The general direction of the 
ranges is from north to south. West of the main 
axis is a volcanic belt. This is largely a plateau where 
pumice is so plentiful that the region is sparsely popu- 
lated. Mt. Ruapehu, on this plateau, is a little more 
than 9000 feet in altitude. It is an. active volcano 
and extends above the snow line. Upon the summit 
there is a small warm lake. Tongariro is another 
active volcano in this same section of the island close 
to the shore of Lake Taupo. Near the west coast 
is Mt. Egmont, an extinct volcano. It is very s} T m- 
metrical, rivaling Fujiyama in beauty. Although 



NEW ZEALAND 



67 



not so high as the Japanese mountain, its top is always 
snow covered. 

New Zealand is one of the three geyser regions of 
the world. Name the other two. Good roads have 
been constructed to the geysers and hotels established. 




Courtesy Department of Tourist and Health Resorts, Wellington. 
Fig. 31. — Waimangu Geyser in Action. 

As the government controls both the roads and the 
hotels, prices are moderate and many people visit 
the geysers. Waimangu Geyser came into existence 
in 1901, and ceased acting in 1903. At times it spouted 
water to the height of 1500 feet. As in our Yellow- 
stone Park, hot springs are very numerous. 

Because of the abundant rainfall already spoken 



68 



OCEANIA 




NEW ZEALAND 69 

of, rivers and lakes are plentiful. They add much to 
the attractiveness of the island. The Wairoa River, 
the largest, is navigable for forty miles. Most of the 
rivers are, of course, short and swift. Sometime they 
will be very valuable because of the power which they 
will furnish. The chief lake of North Island is Lake 
Taupo. 

The principal cities are Auckland and Wellington. 
Auckland, the largest city in New Zealand, has a popu- 
lation, including its suburbs, of about 100,000. It is 
in the northern part of the island, on an isthmus ten 
miles wide, which gives it water frontage on two sides. 
It is built upon hills, and near by are some ancient vol- 
canic mountains. In the top of one of these, a reser- 
voir has been made. 

The city is supported by a region rich in resources. 
To the north are valuable forests of pine and kauri. 
As a result, Auckland exports timber to Australia and 
kauri gum to the United States. South of the city, dairy- 
ing and stock raising are important. These industries 
lead to the exportation of butter, cheese, frozen meat, 
and wool. Sugar is imported from Fiji and refined 
in Auckland. Other important industries are ship- 
building, the tanning of leather, and the manufacture 
of boots and shoes, rope, brick, tile, pottery, and iron 
goods. 

Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, has a popu- 



70 



OCEANIA 




NEW ZEALAND 71 

lation of about 75,000. The city is at the southern 
extremity of the island, on the shore of Cook Strait. 
Because of its central position with reference to New 
Zealand, it has become important as a distributing 
center. It has a deep and well-protected harbor. 
Most of the city is located upon the low land close to 
the sea, because hills surround the capital. As the 
hills are an obstacle to both building and transporta- 
tion, some of them have been cut down. Many sheep 
and cattle are raised in the vicinity ; hence wool, frozen 
meat, and dairy products are exported, and woolen 
goods are manufactured. In the city are foundries, 
sawmills, soap plants, boot and shoe factories, and 
match factories. The manufacturing is chiefly for 
the home market. 

South Island 

South Island is the larger of the two chief islands. 
Its main mountain axis is close to the western coast. 
Several of its peaks are more than 10,000 feet in height, 
and Mt. Cook, the most lofty, rises to the altitude of 
12,349 feet. 

In these mountains, which are called the Southern 
Alps, there are many large glaciers. Owing to the very 
heavy precipitation, the snow line on the western slope 
of the mountains is much lower than it is on the east- 
ern slope. Some of the glaciers extend right into the 



72 



OCEANIA 



timber. West of the axis is the beautiful Franz Josef 
Glacier. On the east slope are the Tasman, Murchison, 
and Godley, all immense in size. 

The lofty mountains cause a very heavy precipita- 
tion on the west slope. A result of this is seen in the 




Photograph from Janet M. Cummings. 
Fig. 34. — Franz Josef Glacier. 



dense forests that yet cover much of the area. These 
forests, together with the mountain barrier, for a long 
time retarded the settlement of Westland, as the west- 
ern slope is called. It is not densely populated to-day, 
but the discovery of gold near the mouth of the Hoki- 
tika River in 1865 led to a rush of people into the region. 
Although much of the excitement of the early days has 



NEW ZEALAND 73 

died out, there is a great deal of gold mined in this 
district. 

The timber is now one of the greatest resources of 
Westland. It is cut for the home markets, and some 
is exported. The Kauri pine grows to an immense 
size. In some cases the logs are shot down the slopes 
in slides made of logs, and in some cases they are 
floated down streams. The turpentine which exudes 
from these trees forms a gum. When the trees fall 
and decay, the gum remains in the earth. The best 
of this Kauri gum, as it is called, is practically color- 
less. Inferior grades are the color of , amber. The 
buried gum is found by pushing sharp iron rods into 
the ground. When a piece of gum is struck, it is dug 
out. Some of the pieces are not larger than hen's 
eggs and some weigh many pounds. The gum is 
collected from living trees also. It is used in making 
certain kinds of varnish, lacquer, and linoleum. 

The west coast has beautiful fiords like those on the 
coast of Norway. There are waterfalls of great 
height, and lakes and streams that delight all who 
see them. Lake Wakatipu, some fifty miles long, 
has wooded islands ; and there are mountain streams 
flowing into it. In places it is 1000 feet deep, but 
the bordering mountains rise 8000 feet above its blue 
waters. 

As South Island has the highest mountains, so also 



74 OCEANIA 

it has the largest plain in New Zealand. This is the 
Canterbury Plain, which slopes from the mountains 
eastward. It is about 150 miles long and 40 miles 
wide. Having only a moderate rainfall, it had little 
forest area ; hence the white people rapidly settled 
upon it. It was easy to build roads, and agriculture 
was profitable. 

The city of Christchurch owes its importance, and 
we might say its existence, to the plain. It is located 
upon Avon Stream and has a population of about 
80,000. Its port is Littleton, with which it is connected 
by means of a tunnel. 

Christchurch has rail connections with the north 
end of the island and with Greymouth in West land. 
The road connecting the two slopes leads up the valley 
of the Waimakariri River to Arthur's Pass and then 
down the Teremakau River. Owing to the fertility 
of the country and the beauty of the Westland scenery, 
it is a much-traveled road. 

On the southeast coast is Dunedin on a landlocked 
bay. It has fine streets and substantial business 
blocks of stone. The population, numbering about 
65,000, is chiefly Scotch. It has woolen mills, and 
manufactures clothing and boots and shoes. It is 
the chief manufacturing center in the islands. The 
city owns the lighting, power, and water plants, the 
street railways, and slaughterhouses. Much meat, 



NEW ZEALAND 75 

wool, grain, potatoes, dairy products, and gold are 
sent from the tributary country into Dunedin. 

Although the wonderful scenery and the delightful 
climate of Xew Zealand are attracting people from all 
parts of the world, its political conditions are equally 
attractive. Probably in no other country are the 
rights and privileges of the people more carefully pro- 
tected. ' When it was found that the land was falling 
into the hands of a few capitalists, the government 
bought back large tracts that had already been dis- 
posed of. To-day only small tracts of land are sold to 
an individual and only to those who are actually to 
till the soil. 

The railroads are in the hands of the government. 
As a result both freight and passenger rates are low. 
Women vote and hold office. All difficulties between 
capital and labor are settled by arbitration. In many 
ways Xew Zealand, although so young, is a model for 
the other countries of the world. 



CHAPTER X 

NEW GUINEA 

In the year 1545 a Spanish explorer , finding that 
some of the natives of New Guinea resembled the peo- 
ple of Guinea, on the west coast of Africa, gave to 
the island its present name. The island is sometimes 
called Papua; and its native inhabitants, Papuans. 

Torres Strait, which is shallow and only one hundred 
miles in width, separates Australia from New Guinea. 
In the strait there are a number of islands. There 
are, therefore, many resemblances between the plant 
and animal life of the northern part of Queensland 
and the southern part of New Guinea. As you know, 
southeastern New Guinea is now a part of the Common- 
wealth of Australia. 

New Guinea is a little larger than Borneo. Like 
Borneo it has not yet been thoroughly explored. A 
mountain system extends through practically the 
center of the island in a southeast-to-northwest direc- 
tion. In the western part of New Guinea, south of 
the great Gulf of Geelvink, the mountains are called 
the Charles Louis Mountains. Some of the peaks in 
this part of the system rise above the snow line, The 

76 



NEW GUINEA 77 

mountains in the southeastern part are, some of them, 
more than 10,000 feet in altitude! 

Being entirely within the torrid zone, New Guinea 
has a warm climate. Between what parallels of lati- 
tude is the island situated? When summer prevails 
in the northern hemisphere, the southeast trade winds 
blow. What part of the island would then receive 
most rainfall? When it is summer in the southern 
hemisphere, the northeast trade winds blow. The 
seasons, therefore, change with the shifting of the winds. 

Forests clothe the land from the shore to the tops 
of all but the highest mountains. In the dryer parts 
there are many eucalyptus trees. The bread fruit, 
mango, banana, cocoanut, sago palm, and other tropi- 
cal forms of vegetation abound. 

Some of the animals are like those in Australia. 
The kangaroo and the dingo are examples. Wild 
pigs are numerous and are eaten by- the natives. 
Among birds we find the bird of paradise, cockatoo, 
parrot, a very beautiful pigeon, and the cassowary. 
There is a wonderful butterfly with a golden body and 
a crimson breast. It is called the bird-winged butter- 
fly. Specimens have been caught that measured seven 
inches from tip to tip. 

The chief occupations of the men are hunting, fish- 
ing, and canoe making. They also spend much time 
in fighting. The boats are hollowed-out logs. They 



78 OCEANIA 

have outriggers to prevent them from capsizing, and 
some have sails made of grass mats. Large canoes, 
forty or fifty feet in length, are made for trading. The 
men make their own weapons, which consist of bows 
and arrows, spears, daggers, and blowpipes ; and they 
carve wood quite skillfully. 

The mineral resources of the island have not been 
extensively developed. Deposits of gas, petroleum, 
coal, and copper are known to exist. 

The women cultivate rice, bananas, corn, and to- 
bacco. They make vessels of clay, some of which are 
used for carrying water and some for cooking. They 
weave mats of grass upon which people sit, for there 
are no chairs in the houses. 

Like the natives of Borneo, those of New Guinea 
wear little clothing. They are dark brown in com- 
plexion, and they have kinky hair. Some travelers 
have compared the hair of the people to mops. Combs 
of bamboo are worn by both men and women. The 
natives of New Guinea do not believe that death results 
from natural causes. Therefore, when a person dies, 
they think that an evil spirit or some enemy has caused 
the death. 

The dwellings are very much like those of Borneo. 
You will learn about these later. In some cases houses 
are built in tree tops as a protection. The owners 
ascend and descend by means of ladders, 



NEW GUINEA 



79 



Three European nations have divided New Guinea 
among themselves. As has been said, Great Britain 
claims the southeastern part, Germany lays claim to 
the northwestern section, and Holland to the western 




Fig. 35. — New Guinea Houses Built in Trees. 

part. The British portion is the best developed. 
Because of the nature of the climate the natives will 
have to do most of the work, but the white man can 
direct it. Port Moresby, on the east shore of the large 
bay of the same name, has deep water and is connected 
with Australia bv cable. 



CHAPTER XI 

CELEBES 

When you look at a map of Celebes, the peculiarity 
of the outline of the island at once attracts your at- 
tention. Four mountainous peninsulas radiate from a 
common center. These peninsulas, as well as the 
central mass of the island, are still further indented 
by small bays and projections. A subsidence of the 
island has caused this irregularity of outline. 

The central part of the island consists largely of 
hills and mountains. Some of the peaks are believed 
to be more than 10,000 feet in altitude. Volcanoes 
have been active in the past, and earthquakes are of 
frequent occurrence. There are no marsh lands. 
Owing to its favorable position geographically and its 
altitude, Celebes offers a most healthful climate. 

The rivers are short and flow rapidly and are there- 
fore of little value from the standpoint of navigation. 
Lakes are numerous, the largest ones being in the 
southern part of the island. 

The climate is hot ; yet, owing to the irregularity of 
the coast line, the sea greatly modifies the tempera- 

80 



CELEBES 81 

ture. There is much rain, and violent thunderstorms 
are common. 

In the parts of Celebes that face Australia the plants 
are closely related to those of that continent. In other 
parts there is less resemblance. The palm, camphor, 
cinnamon, nutmeg, clove, and cocoanut are among 
the trees. The forest trees much resemble those of 
the adjacent islands. 

Among the animals found are the buffalo, pig, deer, 
boar, and the tailless baboon. In the eastern part 
are marsupials similar to those in Australia. The 
bird of paradise is a very interesting form of animal 
life. The plumage of the female is unattractive, but 
that of the male is very beautiful. The plumes are 
used in many countries to decorate hats. 

The soil is largely decomposed lava and is very fertile. 
Agriculture is not highly developed, however. Some 
coffee and tobacco are grown. As most of the people 
live close to the coast there is considerable fishing 
and some trading by sea. The women are quite skill- 
ful in weaving and embroidering, and cotton clothes 
are made. 

Makassar on the peninsula of the same name in 
the southern part is the capital. It is a city of about 
25,000 population. The business streets are narrow 
and lined with warehouses. There are few Europeans, 
but many Chinese in the city. It is the most impor- 



82 OCEANIA 

tant native commercial center in the East Indies, as 
much of the trade of the islands east of Celebes passes 
through it. Makassar has been called, on account 
of its importance, the Hong Kong of the Dutch in the 
East Indies. It exports copra, rattan, oils, tortoise 
shell, pearl, spices, and skins of the birds of paradise. 
Other articles of export are rice, nutmegs, cloves, 
dammar, copal, totara, and trepang. The totara 
is a tree the wood of which is used in making 
furniture. 

Near the northern end of the northern peninsula is 
the city of Menado. It is less than one half as large 
as Makassar but is situated upon a fine harbor. Back 
of the city rise mountains. Avenues lined with beauti- 
ful trees extend from the shore towards the mountains. 
The Europeans live in a quarter by themselves. Most 
of the houses have thatched roofs. 

Menado is very important as a copra-exporting cen- 
ter. The commodity is shipped to most of the coun- 
tries of Europe. In addition to copra, coffee, sugar, 
spices, and rattan are exported. 

The native inhabitants of Celebes are vigorous and 
quite intelligent. Those near the coast have made 
most progress because they have come in contact with 
one another and with people from other islands and 
from more distant parts of the world. In the interior 
much of the energy of the men is devoted to fighting. 



CELEBES 



83 




Fig. 36. — Natives of Celebes, Carrying Resin. 

The natives are dark in color. The} r are quite graceful 
in their movements. Considering the area of the 
island, the population is sparse. 



84 OCEANIA 

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to settle 
in Celebes, but since 1660 the Dutch have been in 
possession. They treat the natives justly , and the 
latter are lo}^al to the Dutch. Although the pagan 
and Mohammedan religions prevail, many tribes have 
accepted the Christian religion. 

As in Java, the roads are excellent. They are kept 
in repair by the natives. Every able-bodied man 
must, during each year, give several days to working 
upon the roads. The plan is similar to one formerly 
followed in many of our states. 

The coffee industry is rapidly developing in Celebes. 
The rich volcanic ash, scattered over the foothills, 
furnishes the finest soil for coffee growing. The same 
soil produces much rice and Indian corn, upon which 
the native workers subsist. 

Forests are cleared away and young coffee trees 
planted in sheltered places, surrounded by small trees 
that are allowed to grow for protection. The seed- 
lings are then transplanted from these nurseries. 
The trees grow to a height of about six feet. The top 
is then cut away, the strength going to the side branches 
that bear the fruit. 

In north Celebes, where the chief coffee plantations 
are found, fine coffee berries mature to a height of 
4000 feet above sea level. Rats and mice are very 
fond of the red berries and gnaw the shoots of the 



CELEBES 85 

trees until the berries fall. The Dutch farmers guard 
against these invasions by allowing cats to run wild. 
The natives use the cats as food, however; and the 
Dutch are frequently forced to deal severely with 
the natives. 



CHAPTER XII 

BORNEO 

The island of Borneo is one of the little known parts 
of the world. Dense forests, a climate that is very 
detrimental to white people, and the treachery of the 
natives have combined to prevent thorough explora- 
tion. Borneo is much larger than France, yet the 
population of the city of Paris is several times that of 
Borneo. 

The island extends but a few degrees north and south 
of the equator. Except upon the most lofty mountains, 
the temperature is, therefore, high at all times of the 
year. The ocean moderates the heat considerably, 
however. The average annual rainfall is about 75 
inches, but in some districts it is twice as much as this. 

Where high temperature and abundant rainfall 
occur, vegetation grows luxuriantly. Practically all 
of Borneo is forested. Vines spread from tree to tree, 
and ferns and orchids are numerous. Some of the 
trees furnish valuable timber; some supply gums; 
some resin ; and others supply food. Comparatively 
little use is v made of the forest products, however, 

86 



BORNEO 87 

because roads are lacking and the people are not suffi- 
ciently progressive. 

One of the most useful trees is the sago palm. This, 
with the expenditure of very little labor, furnishes an 
immense amount of food. The tree is cut down and 
the pith washed out by means of running water. The 
sago settles, hardens, and will keep almost indefinitely. 
From it cakes are made. Much sago is exported from 
Sarawak. 

You remember that the bamboo is of great use in 
China and Japan. The people of Borneo use it ex- 
tensively also. It furnishes posts for the houses and 
is used as flooring. Bridges and fences are constructed 
from it. Water is carried and rice is cooked in sections 
of the bamboo stems. 

The large amount of rain that falls in Borneo gives 
rise to many streams. Most of them carry large quan- 
tities of sediment, which they deposit in the deltas at 
their mouths. Much of the island is fringed by swamps, 
and these hinder the construction of roads and cause 
the climate to be unfavorable. The natives have 
felled trees across the streams, and these serve as 
bridges. Some of the rivers are navigable for short 
distances. The Barito, in the southern part, is the 
most valuable in this respect. 

The central part of the island is hilly, and there are 
some lofty mountains. Few of the high peaks have 



88 OCEANIA 

been ascended by white men. Kinibalu, in British 
Borneo, is said by some travelers to be more than 
13,000 feet in altitude. So far as is known, there are 
no active volcanoes. 

The map shows you that the main mountain axis 
trends in a northeast-to-southwest direction. From 
this axis several ranges radiate. Were the island to 
subside a few hundred feet, the ocean would flood the 
valle}^ between these ranges. Borneo would then 
have an outline similar to that of Celebes. 

In the forests of Borneo there are many wild ani- 
mals. Among them are found the elephant, rhinoc- 
eros, panther, deer, crocodile, and orang-outang. 

There are few Europeans in Borneo. Most of the 
natives are Dyaks. As has been said, they are not 
highly civilized. They grow some rice and bananas, 
but Nature provides food so bountifully that the people 
do not need to labor much to secure enough to eat. 

The Dyaks are dark in complexion and have straight 
black hair. The men do not wear beards as they do 
in most countries. They carefully pull out the hairs 
that appear upon the face. Sometimes the eyelashes 
are pulled out. We wish to keep our teeth clean 
and white, not only for appearance' sake but to pre- 
serve them. The Dyaks consider black teeth an orna- 
ment. The teeth are discolored by chewing the betel- 
nut. Sometimes the front teeth are filed to a point. 



BORNEO 89 

Of course, the natives of Borneo do not dress as we 
do. The climate is so warm that little clothing is 
required. The people are fond of ornaments. On 
their arms, ankles, and about their waists the women 
wear many bamboo hoops covered by brass rings. 
It is quite common to tattoo the body, as this kind of 
marking is considered very ornamental. 

The houses are quite primitive. Very commonly 
they are built upon the banks of the streams and along 
the shores of the island. This is because the chief 
means of travel is by boat. The houses are built 
on piles to raise them above floods or the tide and 
partly also as a means of protection against enemies. 
One or more notched logs placed against the house take 
the place of steps. The roofs of the buildings are 
thatched. There are no stoves and practically no 
furniture. The people sit upon the floor and sleep 
upon mats. 

In many cases houses are occupied by individual 
families, but some of the houses are occupied by as 
many as one hundred persons. These buildings are 
known as "Long Houses." Like the small ones, they 
are elevated. A veranda extends entirely around the 
house. This is the common meeting place, where the 
occupants of the house visit or carry on their simple 
industries. Rooms for the various families open on 
the veranda. 



90 



OCEANIA 




BORNEO 91 

The industries of the Dyaks are few. The men 
fight ; hunt, fish, make boats and their various weapons. 
These consist of bows and arrows, spears, daggers, 
and blowpipes. The women prepare sago, pound 
rice, and spin. Fish are speared, shot, and obtained 
by poisoning the waters of the streams. Poisoning the 
water does not seem to render the fish unfit for food. 

One of the curious industries of the people is the 
collection of edible birds' nests. The nests are made 
by a species of sea swallow, and consist of a gelatinous 
material which the Chinese consider quite a delicacy 
in the making of soup. The birds build their nests 
on the roofs and walls of large caves. The Dyaks 
construct a scaffolding of bamboo poles. A man 
carrying a long pole will mount a scaffold and push 
off the nests. Large numbers of them are exported to 
China. 

When a native of Borneo is accused of some crime, 
the matter is settled in a very curious manner. In- 
stead of carefully investigating the situation, the accuser 
and the accused are required to plunge their heads un- 
der water. It is quite an elaborate ceremony. The 
friends of each man are present and shout and call 
upon the spirits to prove that their side is right. The 
man who keeps his head under water the longer is 
declared to be the innocent one. 

There are no large cities. Banjermasin, situated 



92 OCEANIA 

where the Martapura flows into the Barito, is the most 
important. It handles gold dust, coal, copra, pepper, 
wax, rattan, gum, resin, baskets, and swallow's nests. 
There are many Chinese ; and they live in a quarter by 
themselves, as do the Japanese. 

You observe that a part of Borneo is controlled by 
the English and a part by the Dutch. The Spanish 
were the first Europeans to visit the island, landing in 
1521. The district known as Sarawak belongs to an 
English family by the name of Brooke. One of the 
ancestors of the present family did a great deal for 
the Dyaks in northwestern Borneo, and in payment 
he was given a title and a large tract of land. 



CHAPTER XIII 

JAVA 

Java has been called the " Queen of the Eastern 
Archipelago." It belongs to the East Indies, and is 
the most important island of that group. Java is 
a Dutch possession, as are most of the other East 
India islands. Buildings were constructed in Java by 
the Dutch as early as 1595, and in 1677 they had 
extensive holdings there. Slavery was abolished in 
Java in 1859. 

More than twelve hundred years ago, the Hindus 
came to Java. In the fourteenth century the Moham- 
medans triumphed over the Hindus. While the 
Mohammedan faith remains, there are wonderful 
temples scattered over the island as silent monuments 
to the work of the followers of Buddha. These mar- 
velous ruins are chiefly in the central and eastern parts 
of the country. Many of the buildings are adorned 
with sculptures. The temple of Baro-Bador in the 
south central portion is built on a hilltop. It has a 
square base, and rises in six terraces. It is built of 
blocks of lava, and the sculptured figures and images 
of Buddha are of the same material. This is one of the 

93 



94 OCEANIA 

most beautiful temples in the world. No lime or mortal- 
was used in the construction, the joints being perfect. 

Java lies directly south of Borneo and the Java Sea. 
Sunda Strait separates it from Sumatra. It stretches 
east and west 600 miles, and its average width is about 
125 miles. Its area is about that of the state of New 
York, or four times that of the Netherlands. There 
are 30,000,000 people living on the island, or about a 
third as many as are in the entire United States. 

The country is divided into 22 districts, included 
in Eastern, Western, and Middle Java. The natives 
are Malays of three tribes or nations : the Sudanese, 
Javanese, and Mandurese. Many of the wonderful 
little Javanese people were seen in their native village 
at the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893. Many of these 
people are civilized, and are not unlike the Filipinos. 

Each district is ruled by a native prince. There is 
also a Dutch Regent, or Resident ruler, in each district. 
The Regent is called the "elder brother." The entire 
countrv is under a Governor General and a Council 
appointed by him. The natives are quiet and easily 
managed ; and they pay great homage to the Dutch. 
They are taught how to till the soil and harvest crops. 
They have little ambition but love amusements, cele- 
brations, and feasts. They are great gamblers and 
frequently gamble away in a short time the accumula- 
tion of months. 



JAVA 95 

A range of mountains extends from east to west the 
entire length of Java, and nearly through the center of 
the country. In the interior these mountains rise to 
altitudes varying from 5000 to 12,000 feet. Many of 
the peaks are volcanic, and some of the volcanoes are 
now active. Mountain spurs project both north and 
south, and inclose not only valleys but high table- 
lands. 

It can thus readily be seen that while Java lies only 
a short distance south of the equator, it has, on account 
of its varying altitude, a great variety of climates. 
On the north coast the land is low and swampy. 
Toward the west there are great swamps with forests 
of mangrove trees. On the south it is rocky, and steep 
cliffs project in some places into the Indian Ocean. 

Perhaps nowhere in the world is the soil more pro- 
ductive than in Java. As it is in the torrid zone, the 
seasons are the wet and dry. In the lowlands there 
are tremendous thunderstorms accompanied by light- 
ning, frequently as many as a hundred storms coming 
in a single year. From 60 to 185 inches of rain may fall 
yearly. While it may be uncomfortably hot in places, 
on the highlands the temperature drops as low as 32° F., 
the temperature varying according to the altitude. 
Latitude, altitude, and the ocean all play important 
parts in determining the climate of Java. 

There are many rivers in Java. Some of these are 



96 OCEANIA 

perennial. As much sugar and rice are produced, 
irrigation is carried on extensively in all portions of 
Java, and everywhere the island gives the appearance 
of a vast garden. From the rivers, canals extend in 
every direction. The streams help to fertilize the 
soil as they carry the rich material formerly thrown 
out by the volcanoes. The water from the irrigation 
ditches, the natural moisture that falls in the form of 
rain, the heat, and the fertility of the soil, coupled with 
the knowledge of farming possessed by the Dutch, 
serve to produce two or three excellent crops yearly. 

The people have so utilized the natural rise of the 
ground from the coast to the shoulders of the mountains 
as to form a series of terraces. When covered with 
trees and vines, these terraces give the appearance of 
a number of green steps. The country reminds one 
of the terraced banks of the Rhine in Germany, but of 
course the vegetation is different. 

Nearly one fourth of Java is forest covered. One 
of the most useful forest trees is the teak. This is 
very durable and is used in shipbuilding. Teak lum- 
ber is exported. 

In the forests and jungles, especially the low forests 
and slopes to the east, are many tigers, leopards, and 
panthers. In the marshes are rhinoceroses. Deer, 
wild hogs, wild cattle, monkeys, and bats there are in 
abundance, and numerous varieties of birds, including 



JAVA 97 

the peacock, partridge, quail, and pigeon. Our do- 
mestic poultry is supposed to have developed from the 
jungle fowl of Java. The chief animal used for do- 
mestic purposes is the patient water buffalo. There 
are also many cattle and horses. 

In Java much of the land is in the form of plantations, 
owned by the government. There are many planta- 
tions controlled by private individuals, however. The 
largest plantations are those of sugar, rice, and coffee. 
Rice is the principal crop, and is grown on the low 
coast plain, watered by the canals. Most of the rice 
is used in Java, but some is exported to Borneo. 

The principal export is sugar. This is chiefly sent to 
Europe, although some finds its way to the refineries 
of the United States. The sugar is grown on the low- 
lands, the plantations being owned mostly by Dutch 
corporations. The cane grows much taller than in 
Cuba, sometimes to twice the height of the natives. 
The moisture and heat and the fertilitv of the soil 
account for this. There are immense sugar mills 
scattered about. Some of the homes of the owners of 
the plantations are very palatial and as fine in every 
way as the beautiful homes in Europe or this country. 

In addition to the rice, coffee, and sugar, there are 
fields of cotton, tea, opium, tobacco, maize, and on the 
higher levels, wheat and rye. The chinchona tree, 
brought years ago from the Andes Mountains, yields 

H 



98 



OCEANIA 




JAVA 99 

quantities of quinine. Quinine is obtained from the 
bark of the tree. Half of the world's supply of quinine 
comes from Java. Cinnamon and indigo are other 
valuable products. 

The plants from which indigo is obtained are culti- 
vated in rows. The broad leaves of the plants, which 
are picked two or three times each year, contain the 
coloring matter. These are soaked in water, and when 
soft and beginning to decay, the coloring matter comes 
out of the leaves and mixes with the water. Boiling 
separates the coloring matter from the water. The 
blue cloth, so much worn by the Dutch, is colored with 
indigo. This dye finds a ready market in every 
country. 

Tea is picked by girls and women, and placed on 
squares of white cloth. The leaves are made into 
bundles and are carried on the heads of the natives 
to the factory. When the leaves are wilted, they are 
rolled into compact form and dried on stone floors, 
where protection is had from the sun. 

Of fruits, there are many varieties. The banana, 
pineapple, guava, breadfruit, custard apple, mango, 
and cocoanut grow abundantly. 

Petroleum is produced in great quantities. When 
the fields of petroleum were first being developed, the 
Dutch sent representatives to Pennsylvania and Cali- 
fornia to study our methods of handling the oil wells. 



100 OCEANIA 

Java now furnishes much of the coal oil used in the 
East Indies and Japan. The United States still sends 
considerable petroleum to Japan. 

The chief food of the people is rice. The principal 
meal of the day is breakfast; which comes between 
one and two o'clock in the afternoon. This,' however, 
does not mark the opening but the closing of the work- 
ing day. Owing to the heat, the comfortable working 
time is the early morning. The rice table, or Bijst- 
table, is an interesting feature of Javanese life. Guests 
are served with a quantity of rice in large soup plates. 
There is then placed upon this a variety of vegetables, 
fish, fowl, and eggs. This is flavored with portions 
of cucumber, garlic, onions, peppers, and spices. A 
second course is of solid meats and vegetables. This 
is followed by a dessert. 

Dinner is eaten late in the evening. The well-to-do 
stay in doors during the hot afternoons. Following 
the dinner, they make calls, drive, or engage in pastime. 

The markets are interesting. The natives visit 
them early in the morning. Picturesque Javanese 
may be seen trudging along the road. Each native 
carries two baskets on a pole over his shoulder, just 
as you have seen the Chinese do in pictures. But in 
Java, the markets are chiefly conducted by Chinamen. 
They are the real merchants. At the market, the 
shouting and calling would be distracting to a visitor. 



JAVA 



101 



The houses of the Europeans are frequently built 
of stone, with marble, or tile, floors and wide verandas, 
and are surrounded by large, attractive gardens. The 
natives live in cottages with gable or thatched roofs. 
Men and women dress much alike. The skirt or 




Photograph from Janet M. Cummings. 
Fig. 39. — A Javanese Water Carrier and Her Children. 

sarong is fastened at the waist and reaches below the 
knees. The kabaya is a short jacket. A scarf, or 
cumberbund, is sometimes worn about the waist or 
shoulders. Men frequently wear a kerchief on the 
head, and over this a wide straw hat. Women wear 
nothing on the head. 



102 OCEANIA 

The capital of the Dutch East Indies is Batavia, 
located in the northeast part of Java. It is six miles 
from the coast and upon swampy land that has been 
drained by canals. Formerly the harbor was poor, but 
an artificial harbor has been formed. The Jacatra, 
or Tjilwong, River flows through the city. Batavia is 
the commercial center of Java ; Tanjong Priok is the 
port, and is connected with the city by a railway. 

The streets of Batavia are wide and straight, some 
of them being 200 feet in width. In some streets 
canals occupy the center. The canals are lined with 
stones, and are protected by banks or dikes. Trees 
border the streets and the squares. In the eighteenth 
century the city was fortified. Some of the old build- 
ings date back many years ; the Town House, to 1652. 
Then all the canals were filled with water. Now some 
of them are dry. Natives chiefly inhabit the old town, 
while the fine houses of the Europeans are located 
in New Town. This is made up of many beautiful 
suburban villages, annexed, much as a city annexes 
territory in our country. The public buildings are 
imposing. Batavia is the official residence of the 
Governor General. 

Thirty-five miles inland from Batavia is Breitenzong. 
Here are located some of the most famous botanical 
gardens in the world. 

Surabaya is on the Java Sea near the east end of the 



JAVA 



103 




104 OCEANIA 

island. It is the largest city, having more than 150,000 
people. It has a good harbor and carries on ex- 
tensive commerce with the ports of Asia. Surabaya 
is the chief naval station of the Dutch East Indies. 
Samarang, between Batavia and Surabaya, is an im- 
portant town. 

The Dutch are great road builders. Miles and miles 
of excellent road have been constructed, thus allow- 
ing for the easy transportation of fruits, grains, rice, 
coffee, sugar, and other articles of commerce, to the 
coast towns. A railroad connects the chief cities and 
spurs run into the island at different points. 

Java, long known as one of the most beautiful spots 
in the world, is now being Adsited each year by an 
increasing number of Americans and Europeans. The 
Dutch have not encouraged visitors, although their 
treatment of them is always courteous. Much formal- 
ity attends the securing of passports and credentials 
to travel on the island. 



CHAPTER XIV 

SUMATRA 

Sumatra is one of the largest islands in the world. 
Can you name and locate the islands that are larger? 
It belongs in the East Indies group of islands and 
is one of the Dutch possessions. The southernmost 
part of Asia is the Malay Peninsula. Only a narrow 
stretch of water, the Strait of Malacca, separates Asia 
from Sumatra. The island extends northwest and 
southeast for more than 1000 miles. In width it is 
nowhere much more than one fourth this distance. Its 
area is a little greater than that of California. 

Stretching away to the east from Sumatra, some- 
what resembling the tail of a great kite, are Java and 
other islands of the East Indies. Sumatra is crossed 
by the equator in nearly its central portion. This 
gives it a tropical climate. The direct rays of the 
sun and the great rainfall produce everywhere a luxuri- 
ant growth of vegetation. The climate is quite health- 
ful on the east coast, and, in the highlands of the in- 
terior, is most delightful. The monsoons are irregular 
and rain falls during all the months of the year. 

The Barisan range of mountains extends the entire 

105 



106 OCEANIA 

length of Sumatra along its western or Indian Ocean 
side. This backbone of mountains varies in average 
altitude from 1500 feet in the south to 6000 feet under 
the equator. There are many lofty cones in this 
range, of which twenty are volcanoes. These peaks 
rise to altitudes varying from 6000 to 10,000 feet. 
There is a second mountain range parallel to the 
Barisan, with high plateaus joining the ranges. 

The mountain range being so near the western coast, 
there is only a narrow coastal plain. The mountains 
are covered with luxuriant tropical growth. A wide 
alluvial plain stretches to the east and north. This 
is covered with jungle, forest, and marsh. The rivers 
are sluggish, and form deltas at their mouths. 

Between the chains of mountains there are extensive 
and fertile valleys. In the interior are many beautiful 
lakes. Some of these occupy the craters of volcanoes 
that were once active. The largest lake is over 1000 
feet in altitude, is 17 miles long and 6 broad, and 
is the source of a river. 

The active volcanoes throw out quantities of ash. 
This injures everything upon which it falls, and makes 
soil cultivation unprofitable in some sections. 

The native inhabitants are chiefly of the Malay race. 
Many of the tribes, particularly those of Acheen in 
the west, are difficult to govern. They are tall, well 
made, and resist the Dutch supremacy. In other parts 



SUMATRA 107 

of the country the natives are subject to Dutch rule. 
Near the coast, a Dutch Commissioner or " elder 
brother" is supreme. One of the tribes in the interior 
is, in manners, customs, and religion, quite similar to 
the Hindus ; and the ancestors of these people may 
have come from India. They till the soil, raise stock, 
and manufacture jewelry, cloth, and firearms. These 
they sell to the outlying Mala}^ tribes. Most of the 
tribes practice the Mohammedan religion. 

In many places the natives live communal lives ; 
that is, several families occupy one house. Houses 
are sometimes built upon posts of ironwood. The 
floors are high at the sides and sag toward the middle. 
The homes are neat and furnished with comfortable 
beds. In some parts of the country the caste system 
prevails. The better buildings have high gabled roofs. 
In front of each house there is usually a gaedang, or 
rice granary. 

The dress of the natives is most picturesque and 
highly colored. The headdress is fantastic and elabo- 
rate. The skirt, or sarong, is, with the well-to-do classes, 
sometimes trimmed with gold lace. A woman of the 
poorer class will wear one somber-hued sarong; a 
well-to-do woman, two ; and a wealthy woman, three 
sarongs. Jackets are worn loose. Gold and silver braid, 
bracelets, and ear-rings or ear buttons are much worn. 
Tiny babies have their ears pierced for the ear-rings. 



108 OCEANIA 

The chief city and principal port is Padang on the 
west coast. Here, almost under the equator/ the sun's 
rays are nearly vertical at all times and the climate 
is tropical. Rain falls practically every afternoon. 
Great palms are everywhere seen, and on the level 
plains about the town there are numerous banana 
plantations. The buildings are plain structures, but 
are covered with luxuriant vegetation which beautifies 
them. The hotels are poor. Although fruit is to be 
had in abundance, one may find it difficult to obtain 
enough to eat, as the people are lazy and indifferent. 
The moist hot climate produces malaria. Europeans 
lack ambition and become enervated. 

Some distance inland from Padang and at an altitude 
of 2000 feet, is Padang Pandjang. The people are 
well-to-do. Houses are of teak wood and are beauti- 
fully paneled. Fort de Kock is some 3000 feet above 
sea level. Here the climate is delightful. Because 
of the cool, dry mountain air, the Dutch have estab- 
lished here a sanitarium for the army. The town is 
surrounded by open prairie. Much fruit is raised and 
upland rice produced. 

Extending from Padang through Padang Pandjang 
and Fort de Kock to Pajo Kumlo, is a railroad. This 
is one of the first cogwheel railroads ever built to carry 
freight, and it affords an easy mode of travel to the 
interior. Coal is brought down to Padang for the 



SUMATRA 109 

Dutch steamships, which make this port a coaling 
station in both directions. Not far from the coal 
fields there are rich petroleum deposits. 

As you travel upon the railway, you see low, swampy 
jungles on either hand. Tropical fruits and plants 
grow in profusion, and reptiles and insects are every- 
where seen. There are palms of many varieties, and 
scattered here and there are banana plantations. 
These have been planted by the Chinese. 

Farther on is a wonderful gorge, or, as it is called, the 
Klof van Anch. The high mountain walls, waterfalls, 
turbulent mountain streams, great trees and ferns 
and shrubs combine to produce scenery of extreme 
beauty. Still farther on near Pa jo Kumlo is the Klof 
of Haran. Here the waterfalls of Batang-Haran are 
quite wonderful. 

On special days the Passar, or market . is held in the 
various towns of Sumatra. Here gather the inhabitants 
from miles around. The natives dress hi the most 
gaudy fashion, although the brilliant colors harmonize. 
On every hand are displayed fruits and vegetables 
of many varieties. There are ornaments, trinkets, 
toys, mechanical devices, and household utensils. 
Inviting dishes for the table, and palm wines and cool- 
ing beverages are offered for sale. 

Because of its tropical climate. Sumatra produces 
many varieties of fruits. These may easily reach the 



110 OCEANIA 

coast for shipment. Sumatra is in the direct line of 
trade between the East and the West. In Sumatra 
grow the orange, lemon, guava, citron, mango, bread- 
fruit, cocoanut, pomegranate, banana, and pineapple. 
Banana plantations are extensive, and bananas are 
shipped in large quantities. 

The climate and soil also lend themselves to the prof- 
itable cultivation of sugar, cotton, tobacco, and rice. 
These are cultivated on large plantations. The Chinese, 
who do much work on the banana plantations, are the 
best rice farmers. From Palembang much fine coffee 
is shipped. Cocoa, maize, indigo, and millet are 
profitable crops. 

Of the many kinds of spices, pepper is the most 
important. Nearly half the pepper used in the world 
comes from Sumatra. The northwest coast is called 
the pepper coast. The pepper grows on a bush or vine. 
These bushes may be cultivated separately, as are 
grapevines, or they may twine about a tree or pole. 
The berries are picked when red. When dried, they 
turn black. These are ground and furnish the black 
pepper for our tables. If the berries are allowed to 
ripen, they become yellow. By removing the outer 
skin and grinding the berries, white pepper is pro- 
duced. 

From the sago palm is obtained the sago of commerce. 
By grinding the pithy substance, and by washing, so 



SUMATRA 111 

that the woody fiber may be floated off, the grain or 
powder remains. 

Sumatra has many varieties of trees. Several of 
these are good for timber. In addition to the rattan 
palm and numerous varieties of palm trees, there are 
bamboos, fig, camphor, rubber, and other resin-produc- 
ing trees. Gutta-percha is obtained in considerable 
quantity from the forests. Teak, ironwood, and ebony 
are excellent hardwoods. There are also forests of fine 
pine trees. There are flowering trees and shrubs in 
abundance. 

Cattle, hogs, sheep, horses and small ponies, goats, 
and Indian buffalo are raised by the natives. In the 
forests there are herds of elephants. The rhinoceros, 
hippopotamus, and crocodile are here found. The 
tiger, leopard, anteater, taper antelope, deer, orang- 
outang, and many kinds of bat are numerous. Many 
species of fish frequent the rivers. 

In the interior the tribes do excellent silver filigree 
work, and the leaden ware is of the finest quality. The 
gold woven cloth and jewels find ready market. 

Aside from Padang and Palembang, Acheen in the 
extreme west, Benkulen in the southwest, Siboga, 
Telok, and Belong are the chief towns. Singapore on 
the Malay peninsula serves as the principal market for 
the Sumatra products. 



112 



OCEANIA 




Fio. 41. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 

It is a long distance from New York Bay, the chief 
eastern gateway of our country, to San Francisco Bay, 
our chief western gateway. It is a much longer dis- 
tance, however, from San Francisco to the Philippine 
Islands, the most westerly possessions of the United 
States. 

These islands were discovered in 1521, and they re- 
mained almost constantly in the possession of Spain 
from that time until 1898 when they were ceded to 
our country as one of the results of the Spanish- Ameri- 
can War. The United States paid Spain $20,000,000 
for the islands ; and it was a good bargain, for their 
natural resources are enormous and their annual exports 
are worth more than the purchase price. 

There are about 2000 islands in the group, most of 
which are nothing but small masses of rock rising above 
the ocean waves. Luzon and Mindanao are the larg- 
est of the islands, each of which is about the size of 
Pennsylvania. Other important islands are Mindora, 
Palawan, Panay, Samar, and Negros. The total 
i 113 



114 OCEANIA 

area is about as great as that of Colorado, but the 
population is many times as great. 

The islands are very mountainous. In fact, like 
the Japanese Islands, they are the highest parts of a 
partially submerged mountain s} T stem. Many of the 
mountains are volcanoes, a few of which are yet ac- 
tive. Some of these peaks are about 10,000 feet in 
altitude. Earthquake shocks are frequent, and hot 
springs are numerous. 

The Philippine Islands extend from about 4° to 21° 
north latitude. The climate is, therefore, tropical. 
Upon the lowlands the great humidity causes the high 
temperature to be much more oppressive than it would 
be in a dryer climate. Upon the highlands the climate 
is delightful. 

On the eastern slope of the islands there is consider- 
able rain at all seasons of the year. From December 
to June the northeast trade wind prevails ; and, as most 
of the moisture is condensed upon the east side of the 
mountains, the west slope experiences a dry season. 
The high temperature of the southern part of Asia 
during the summer carries the doldrums northward, 
and causes the southwest monsoon to blow. As a 
result, the west slope has its wet season. 

In most parts of the islands, the average annual 
rainfall is high. In Manila it is about 50 inches, but 
in many mountain districts it is very much more. 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 115 

What is the average annual precipitation where you 
live? 

During the summer and autumn, hurricanes, or 
typhoons as they are called in the Philippines, occa- 
sionally sweep over the islands. These storms orig- 
inate in the equatorial part of the Pacific Ocean. 
When they are in progress, the wind is sometimes so 
violent as to tear down houses and uproot great forest 
trees. What part of the United States is sometimes 
visited by hurricanes ? 

The high temperature and the abundant rainfall 
result in dense forests. These forests are especially 
valuable to the United States because they contain 
much hardwood such as the ebony, sandalwood, and 
mahogany. These woods are used in the manufacture 
of furniture. When the transportation facilities in 
the islands have been greatly improved, we shall im- 
port these woods in large amounts. 

In the forests there are many other valuable trees 
and plants. The cocoanut, banana, rubber, and 
bamboo abound. The latter, as in Japan, is used in 
many ways. The rattan is another very useful plant. 
It enters into the construction of houses, furniture, 
crates, and ropes. Cinnamon, cloves, and spices are 
obtained from the forests. Palms and tree ferns 
flourish. Vines twine about the trees and hang from 
the branches. The ground is obstructed by creeping 



116 



OCEANIA 



plants which make walking through the forest quite 
difficult. 

Animals of many kinds find a congenial home in 
the forests. There are great snakes, apes, monkeys, 
antelopes, wild hogs, and crocodiles. Birds, some of 
them having bright plumage, are numerous. 

Of the domesticated animals the water buffalo, or 
carabao, is the most useful. It is very extensively 




PhotOyrapn by W. L. Kic/turdsu,.. 
Fig. 42. — Transportation by Means of the Carabao. 

used both in agriculture and in transportation. Cattle, 
goats, and horses were introduced by the Spaniards. 

Because of the tropical climate, sugar, rice, the 
banana, plantain, pineapple, orange, lemon, cocoanut, 
cocoa, and coffee are successfully grown. The most 
valuable export is a fiber known as abaca, or Manila 
hemp. Nowhere else in the world does it thrive as 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



117 



it does on these islands. It is used in making cordage, 
ropes, and sacking. It is extensively exported to the 
United States, where there is a great demand for it, 
largely because of our enormous output of grain. 
Rice, tobacco, and sugar are other important crops. 







Fig. 43. 



Photograph from Janet M. Cummings. 
Native Carts Loaded with Hemp, Luzon, Philippines. 



Because of the fact that it rains during all of the 
seasons on the east coast, two or three crops of rice are 
grown each year. On the west slope, where there is 
a rainy and a dry season, but one crop of rice is grown 
yearly. Although there is a great quantity of rice 
produced, some is imported. This is because there is 
a large population, about 7,000,000, and rice is the 
chief food. 



118 OCEANIA 

By the people of the more backward tribes, the farm 
labor is performed by hand. The more advanced 
people, and particularly those who operate large 
farms, use up-to-date machinery and methods. Horses 
are not used extensively upon the farms, the carabao 
taking their places. In the cultivation of rice this is 
especially true. Much of the work is done when the 
fields are covered with water, and the carabao is the 
only animal that can be successfully worked in the 
mud. In fact they delight to wallow in the mud and 
water, and unless they can do so frequently they do 
not thrive. 

There is considerable mineral wealth in the Philip- 
pine Islands ; but mining is not an important industry. 
The Spaniards paid little attention to mining, and 
large numbers of the natives lack ambition as well as 
capital. There are deposits of gold, silver, lead, 
copper, iron, sulphur, petroleum, and marble. The 
lack of coal is a disadvantage. 

There are a number of cities in the islands, but only 
one large one, Manila. This city is situated on the 
west side of the island of Luzon on the shore of Manila 
Bay. The bay is large and deep, and has an entrance 
about six miles wide guarded by the island of Corregidor. 
As the bay is open toward the southwest, storms from 
that direction have easy access to the shipping and to 
the city. 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



119 




o 
o 
xn 

H 

<D 

X\ 



o 

> 






120 OCEANIA 

Manila is built at the mouth of the Pasig River 
upon land which is only about ten feet above sea level. 
As the land is so flat, the stream is sluggish. It divides 
the city into two sections, the old and the new. Great 
rafts loaded with cocoanuts are floated down the river 
to Manila, to be from there exported in their natural 
form or as copra. 

Because of its position, Manila is the natural outlet 
for the products of the Central Plain of Luzon. The 
Laguna de Bay region is tributary to it also. The 
railroad and the telephone systems of the island center 
here, and the city has cable connections with San 
Francisco. From the mountains, a number of miles 
distant, a water supply is obtained. 

The second city in importance as a seaport is Iloilo, 
on the island of Panay. It exports much sugar. Lipa, 
Banang, and Batangas in the southern part of Luzon, 
and Cebu, on the island of the same name, are other 
cities of some consequence. 

Of the total population of the Philippine Islands, 
about seven eighths are Filipinos. Great numbers of 
these people are highly educated and live in beautiful 
homes. Some of the natives are uncivilized, and most 
of them live in rather a primitive fashion. This is the 
natural result of the climatic conditions which make 
labor much less necessary than it is in the temperate 
zone. 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



121 




122 OCEANIA 

Some of these primitive people do not till the soil, 
but simply wander from place to place, living upon 
fruits and nuts and such game and fish as they can 
secure. The more advanced tribes till the soil by means 
of sharpened sticks, and build houses of bamboo poles, 
with floors and furniture of the same material. The 
roofs are thatched with grass or palm leaves. Because 
of the dampness, the houses are usually built on posts, 
and the space beneath is used for storage or for pigs 
or poultry. 

The natural wealth of the Philippine Islands is but 
little developed. This is in part due to the nature of 
he climate, which causes the people to lack energy. 
Many of the people are poor, and lack of capital 
always retards the development of a country. When 
more and better farming tools are used, the land will 
yield much larger crops. Lack of transportation 
facilities is another drawback. 

Manufacturing is not extensively developed. Cloth, 
hats, baskets, nets, hammocks, boats, tools, and other 
things are made in the homes. These things are 
taken to the markets and exchanged for other articles, 
or they are sold to buyers. There are of course a 
few manufacturing plants. Liquor, tobacco, lumber, 
cotton goods, shoes, hats, and matches are the chief 
articles made. Much of the commerce is with the 
United States. 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



123 



Our government has done much for the people since 
we purchased the islands. Rail and cart roads have 
been constructed, telegraph and telephone lines built, 
sanitary conditions enforced in the cities, and schools 
established in the various islands. The bo} r s are being 




Courtesy Bureau of Education, Manila, P. I. 
Fig. 46. — Hat Making at the Sampaloe School, Manila. 

taught how to use tools and how to farm more success- 
fully, and the girls are given instruction in sewing and 
cooking. The children learn readily and make rapid 
progress. The Filipinos of the future will be better 
able to support themselves, and will live more healthful, 
useful, and happy lives than do those of the present, 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE FIJI ISLANDS 

Situated just west of the Samoa Islands lies a group 
of islands some 200 in number. Most of these are so 
small that they are not even located upon the map. 
Perhaps 80 of them are inhabited. These are the 
Fiji Islands. They belong to Great Britain. They 
are ruled by an English Governor or High Commis- 
sioner. 

These islands, which are the most important of the 
possessions of the English in the South Pacific, were 
discovered in 1643 by Tasman, a Dutch navigator. 
This was one year after he discovered the island of 
Tasmania, which was named in his honor. In the days 
of our American Revolution, Captain Cook stopped' 
at Viti Levu, the largest of the islands. During the 
middle of the last century, an expedition from the 
United States visited the Fijis. 

Most of the islands are of volcanic origin, and the 
lava soil is very fertile. There are many old volcanic 
cones with rounded tops. The lava poured out of the 
openings and flowed down the sides, building up the 

124 



• THE FIJI ISLANDS 125 

cones, much as the material thrown out by the geysers 
in Yellowstone Park builds up what are called " forma- 
tions." Many of the smaller islands are of coral forma- 
tion, and coral reefs surround them. 

Vanua Levu is next to Viti Levu in size. On these 
and some of the other large islands , there are exten- 
sive forests and tropical vegetation of many varieties. 
Of the trees there are the cocoanut and other palms, 
the pine, tree ferns, and tree nettle. The needle- 
pointed leaves of this tree, when they touch the hand, 
sting as does a poisonous insect. 

The principal product of the Fijis is sugar. The 
plantations are owned and operated by wealthy cor- 
porations. The largest fields of sugar cane and mills 
are on Viti Levu. The work on these sugar plantations 
is done by coolies, brought from India, as the native 
Fijians will not work in the sugar. Much of the sugar 
is exported to Great Britain. Copra is produced in 
large quantities and tobacco is grown. These are sent 
to Great Britain. 

Rice, taro, yams, and vegetables are extensively 
produced. These are used almost exclusively on the 
islands. Bananas, pineapples, lemons, and peanuts 
are shipped to Australian ports and to New Zealand. 
Some sugar, copra, rice, tea, and tobacco are sent to 
these countries. Can you suggest a reason for such 
extensive exports to Australia and New Zealand ? 



126 OCEANIA 

The waters surrounding the islands furnish many 
fish. These are eaten by the natives. Much dried 
fish is sent to China. A peculiar form of sea life called 
the sea cucumber is bought extensively by the Chinese. 
The islanders are expert swimmers and divers. The 
waters are clear and the natives secure pearl shells 
in great quantities. These are exported to Europe, 
where they are made into pearl buttons. 

Of the towns, Suva, on the island of Viti Leva, and 
Louvka, on Evalu, are the largest. They much re- 
semble European towns. The houses, however, are 
low and are surrounded by large yards, with trees, 
shrubs, and flowers. 

The native dwellings are similar to those of Samoa. 
The side walls are covered with plaited reeds. Palm 
leaves, closely woven, serve as an excellent thatch, 
and make practically a rain-proof roof. No nails are 
used in constructing these native houses. Fiber, 
closely laced and knotted, serves all purposes. At 
one end of the house is a raised platform extending 
from side to side. This, covered with mats, is a com- 
fortable sleeping place. A bamboo stool or headrest 
makes as good a pillow as the Fijian desires. 

Each house has three doors. The trunk of a cocoa- 
nut tree, placed lengthwise, is used as an entrance 
stairway. In some of the more pretentious homes 
the side walls are of split bamboo, nicely paneled. 



THE FIJI ISLANDS 



127 




128 OCEANIA 

The floors are of bamboo, interlaced in squares, and 
produce a beautiful parquetry effect. 

In the low country the homes are built upon poles 
or piles, and these are protected securely by founda- 
tions or platforms of rock, as typhoons are severe at 
certain seasons and the floods are destructive. In 
the center of the floor is a pit or fireplace. Over this 
pit is a roasting frame for meats and fowls. Yams 
and vegetables are boiled in earthen vessels. These 
are made by the native pott ere. Closely woven mats 
are on the floor. These are scrupulously clean. The 
natives go barefooted, and just outside the door of each 
house is an earthen vessel containing water. Before 
entering the house, the feet are bathed in this vessel. 

Most of the scattered islands have native chiefs or 
rulers. These are subject to the advice of the British 
Governor. Before the nile of the British the people 
were indolent. They lived from day to day and made 
war upon their neighbors. This was not done for 
conquest, but to satisfy their cannibalistic desires. 

While to-day there are many points in the interior 
little known, traveling anywhere is pleasant and per- 
fectly safe. In the more distant parts the roads are 
mere paths. The natives are industrious, prosperous, 
contented, and are model farmers. Irrigation is ex- 
tensively carried on. The people construct open 
ditches, the mains being of bamboo. 



THE FIJI ISLANDS 129 

The Fiji islanders are adepts as canoe builders. 
Some of their canoes are built to a length of 100 feet. 
In canoe building and in swimming and diving they 
can successfully compete with the Hawaiians. 

There are on the islands many schoolhouses and 
churches. The teachers and missionaries find the 
natives ready pupils. While there are some English 
teachers and ministers, most of them are natives. 
These have been trained in the schools established on 
the islands. 

The population of the islands numbers perhaps 
130,000. Of these 90,000 are native Fijians. There 
are 30 ; 000 or 40,000 Indians working on the planta- 
tions. These people from India seldom return to 
their own country. The natives of Fiji have stiff, 
straight hair, flat features, and are frequently very 
dark brown or almost black in color. They are strong, 
and give the impression of being exceedingly wild and 
fierce. 

The natives subsist chiefly on yams. They also 
eat bananas, breadfruit, fish, fowls, and pork. They 
drink water and the milk of the cocoanut. 

As the yam is the principal element in the daily menu 
of these interesting people, you will wish to learn how 
it is grown. When the ground is cleared, small mounds 
are made two or three feet apart. Upon each mound 
a yam is planted. If the ground is flat, open drains 

K 



130 OCEANIA 

are made between the rows. Canes and bamboos are 
used horizontally, and supported by forked sticks. 
Upon these the vines climb. 

The yam is a root or tuber, much like the sweet 
potato. Yams are dug in March. When the stems 
dry, it is an indication that the tubers are ripe. When 
dug, they are placed in piles, in open sheds, that have 
water-tight thatched roofs, supported by upright 
bamboos. The yams are turned over frequently and 
the growing stems or sprouts rubbed off, as we some- 
times do with potatoes. The yams vary in weight 
from two or three pounds to a great many pounds. 
They are served either boiled, roasted, or steamed. 

There are no large rivers, but on Viti Levu, which 
is some 100 miles in length, there are two rivers that 
allow steamers to penetrate several miles into the 
interior. On the small island of Uban, on which was 
established the ancient capital of Fiji, there are inter- 
esting ruined temples and monuments. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE SAMOA ISLANDS 

Lying in the South Pacific Ocean, more than 4000 
miles from San Francisco, and on the steamship routes 
from Honolulu to Australia and New Zealand, are the 
Samoa Islands. Although there are thirteen islands 
in the group, only three have commercial value or are 
inhabited. They are chiefly of volcanic origin, and are 
subject to earthquakes, which are usually not severe. 
Some of the islands are of coral formation, and in many 
places there are coral reefs or barriers with their sur- 
faces just above the water. The tops of these reefs 
stand from a few feet to two or three miles apart. 
These immense reefsJhave been made by the accumu- 
lation, century after century, of the bodies or skeletons 
of the little coral polyps that live in these waters. 

In the old days the Samoas were called the Navi- 
gator's Islands, owing to the dexterity of the natives 
in sailing their craft. The islands were discovered by 
the Dutch in 1722. For a long time Great Britain 
claimed territory here. The islands are now held by 
Germany and the United States. On account of their 
lying in the direct route for steamships from the western 

131 



132 OCEANIA 

coast of our country to Australia, Tutuila, owned by 
the United States, is of special value to us. 

The volcanic mountains rise in some places to a 
height of 4000 or 5000 feet. They are covered with 
tropical plants and trees of many varieties. On the 
sides or tops of the peaks or cones the cocoanut palm 
grows profusely. The lava soil is exceedingly fertile, 
and the heavy rainfall, coupled with the high tempera- 
ture and sunshine, produces fruits and vegetables in 
abundance. 

During the greater portion of the year, the winds are 
moderate. Near the coast on the plateaus the climate 
is healthful. During February and March, terrific 
hurricanes are frequent. They do much damage to 
crops and houses. In some portions of the islands 
upwards of 200 inches of rain falls annually. 

Of the three largest islands, the easternmost, Savaii 
and Upolu, belong to Germany. Tutuila and three 
smaller islands of the Manua group belong to the 
United States. Savaii is some 45 miles long by 30 
miles wide. Upolu is about half as large, and Tutuila 
still smaller. Our country has had its possessions in 
Samoa since 1899. 

Matauto is the chief town in Savaii. Apia, however, 
on Upolu, is the principal German port. It has a good 
harbor. The island is surrounded by a coral reef, and 
back of Apia the mountains rise to a height of 4000 



THE SAMOA ISLANDS 



133 




134 



feet. On these are'cocoanut palms, breadfruit, and 
guava treesx Apia is the official residence of the 
Bishop of all the South Sea Islands. Many of the 
public or large buildings are constructed of cut coral 
rock. The natives live on one side of the town in a 
lower, marshy district. 

Pago Pago, pronounced Pango Pango, has by far 
the best harbor, however. It is situated on Tutuila. 
The harbor is the crater of an extinct volcano. A 
break in one side permits the passage of ships. The 
walls rise high and almost perpendicularly. The 
harbor is thus protected from wind and storm. This 
landlocked harbor or bay is two miles long and half 
as wide, and deep enough for any vessel. It resembles 
somewhat Crater Lake, in Oregon. As the only 
entrance is at the south, the harbor is protected against 
the prevailing northeast trades. The typhoons, so 
destructive on the sea or near the reefs, are rendered 
harmless to vessels which are within the harbor. An 
American man-of-war is usually to be found here. 
The commander of this vessel serves as Governor of 
Tutuila. A narrow shelf or beach affords opportunity 
for a few natives' homes. 

Pago Pago, being in the direct steamship route from 
the United States and Europe to Australia, now that 
the Panama Canal is completed, will be of greater 
importance, both commercially and as a coaling sta- 



THE SAMOA ISLANDS 135 

tion, than formerly. The surrounding country is very 
fertile. Everywhere is seen the most luxuriant, tropi- 
cal vegetation, as the rains and sun are so generous. 

The native Samoans are lighter in color than most 
of the island tribes. Both men and women are taller 
and more robust than many natives of the south seas. 
They are honest, straightforward, dignified, and polite. 
Both men and women wear a kilt-shaped garment 
called lava lava. This is made of tapa or mulberry- 
bark cloth. Over this kilt the women wear a loose 
tunic with short sleeves. Jewelry is much admired; 
and necklaces, armlets, and anklets are commonly 
worn. These are frequently made of shells. The 
men have bushy black hair, and wear high head- 
dresses. The people are apt scholars, and schools 
and churches are plentiful. They love music, and 
will attend church several times each Sunday, where 
they enter heartily into the singing of American and 
English hymns. 

The food is almost universally cooked by the men. 
If a woman is seen doing the cooking, the men of the 
family may be ridiculed. In Samoa, you see, the tables 
are turned. The chief foods are vegetables, breadfruit, 
taro, yams, bananas, oranges, alligator pears, and 
cocoanuts. Fish are plentiful. The bonita is the 
favorite fish of the Samoans. They are very fond of 
shellfish, especially the shrimp. No spices are used 



136 OCEANIA 

in the food, but the brackish sea water furnishes sea- 
soning. 

The principal meal occurs in the evening. At that 
time the family members are all together. There are 
no tables or chairs. The people sit cross-legged on 
mats. The articles of food are not placed in a common 
dish, as is so often the custom with primitive people. 
The portions are served on broad breadfruit leaves. 

The house is of one room and is circular in form. It 
much resembles a huge beehive. It is some 30 to 
50 feet in diameter and set on poles driven into the 
ground. There is a simple framework of uprights. 
The sides are made in the form of curtains that can 
be hung up or removed at will. The roof is tightly 
thatched so as to resist the rain. It is made of the 
dry leaves of the sugar cane, great quantities of which 
grow wild on the islands. These leaves are tied to- 
gether by strips from the cocoanut palm. The roofs 
slant down from a peak, are strongly made, and, not 
being fastened to the framework of the house, may be 
carried from place to place. 

Mats are used for beds. Several mats are placed 
one on top of another. The pillow is constructed of 
pieces of bamboo placed horizontally on short legs. 
The fireplace is a circular hole in the floor several 
feet in diameter and six or eight inches deep. In this 
is burned dried cocoanut shells. These create no smoke 



THE SAMOA ISLANDS 



137 




138 OCEANIA 

or odor. Cooking is not done in this fireplace, but at 
a distance from the house. The floors are of clay mixed 
with small stones to make them solid. There are 
gardens in connection with most of the houses. In 
these are planted sweet potatoes, breadfruit, yams, 
bananas, and taro. Nearly every family has a flock 
of chickens. 

Everywhere along the seashore the cocoanut is seen 
growing. In the interior or at extreme elevations, 
this tree does not thrive. To the height of 4000 feet, 
however, if reached by the salt sea winds, it grows 
splendidly. Nuts dropped from branches that hang 
over the water are sometimes carried by the sea hun- 
dreds of miles, and when cast upon the sand, will 
find root and mature. The small end of the nut gives 
forth the palm, and from the large, round end the 
roots spring. 

The nuts hang pendant in clusters. They ripen 
throughout the year. As the tree grows, the lower 
branches wither and dry, as is the case with the fan 
palm. The stem or trunk of the tree is sometimes 
smooth and bare for a distance of from 30 to 60 feet 
above the ground. The tree bears in six years and 
comes to full bearing in fifteen or twenty years. The 
cocoanut tree lives to a great age. 

The wood of the cocoanut finds many uses among 
the natives. The oil is used on the bodies of the peo- 



THE SAMOA ISLANDS 



139 




c3 

o 

a 

<£ 
'a 

S-c 

a 



o 

- 
a 




u 
o 
O 



o 
d 



140 OCEANIA 

pie to protect from sun burn. It is, also, a protection 
against mosquitoes and insects. The nuts are some- 
times eaten in their natural condition. The water 
or milk is considered an excellent beverage. By 
allowing the soft pulpy interior to decay, and by drop- 
ping small stones and sand into the hole in the stem 
end of the nut, and b}^ shaking, the soft portions may 
be removed. The shells are then used for drinking 
bottles. When the shells are cut through the middle, 
they make admirable bowls and cups. The fiber 
of the leaf is used for twine. When dry, the leaves 
are bound together for torches or used as fuel. So 
you see the cocoanut palm is very useful to the 
Samoan. 

Copra is the meat of the cocoanut that has been 
dried in the sun. It is spread on mats and the juice 
evaporated. It is then exported to Europe and 
the United States to be used in the manufacture of 
soap. 

Poi is made from taro or kalo. The plant grows from 
a starchy bulb. The root is baked and ground to a 
paste and then mixed with water. It is then allowed 
to ferment. A dish of poi is placed on a mat and the 
family gather around it. Poi is a favorite dish of the 
Samoans. When it is made into cakes and baked, 
foreigners enjoy the dish. 

The breadfruit is about the size of an ordinary canta- 



THE SAMOA ISLANDS 141 

loupe. Some of these have seeds as large as chestnuts. 
These are eaten by the natives. The breadfruit is a 
starchy substance. This is baked in hot ashes covered 
with coals. This pulpy matter is a delicious food. 
It is often cooked with meat and gravy and much 
enjoyed. 

Kava is the common drink of the natives. It is 
made from the roots of a shrub that belongs to the 
pepper family. The roots are ground between stones 
and then soaked in water. They are then pounded 
and rubbed, and a milky substance is extracted. After 
standing, this liquid is strained and is a cooling and 
refreshing drink. If taken to excess, it is intoxicating. 

Many young men are tattooed about the body. 
Girls frequently have their arms tattooed. The men 
are fond of outdoor sports and competitive games. 
Quoits are played by throwing rods. Cricket, learned 
from the English, is very popular. The inhabitants 
of an entire village may be frequently seen watching 
a game of cricket. 

The Samoans are adept at canoe making and row- 
ing. Both men and women row. They take long 
strokes to a musical chant. Their canoes are dug- 
outs made by burning the interiors of logs. Sharp 
stones or such other implements as they have are also 
used. The rough boats rarely capsize, and they carry 
their occupants hundreds of miles to distant islands 



142 



OCEANIA 



in the Pacific. Some of the native boats are fitted 
with outriggers. These are light frameworks made 
of poles several feet in length, extending from either 
end of the boat outward to the water. A piece run- 
ning parallel with the boat connects the poles at their 



£gjg*3£j fit !&i5Us8 




Fig. 51. 



Photograph from Janet M. C warnings. 

Canoe with Outriggers. 



outward ends. These outriggers are very effective 
in keeping the boat from capsizing. 

The imports are chiefly cotton goods, clothing, hard- 
ware, tools, utensils, firearms, canned provisions, coal, 
and manufactured articles. Most of the imports 
come from Australia. Ships going in one direction 
or another are constantly touching at these islands. 
There is a line of small steamers plying between Pago 
Pago and Apia. The round trip is made in about 
twenty-four hours. 

A short distance from Apia, on the island of Upolu ; 



THE SAMOA ISLANDS 143 

Robert Louis Stevenson spent the last years of his life. 
He is buried on Mt. Vaea, not far from the town. If 
the island were remembered for nothing else, it would be 
as the home for a time of this wonderful man. Always 
happy and helpful to others, although a constant physi- 
cal sufferer, he left to the world, through his life and 
writings, a priceless heritage. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

TAHITI 

One of the most interesting islands of the South 
Seas is Tahiti. It is the chief member of the group 
known as the Society Islands. Tahiti is volcanic 
in origin and is very mountainous. A narrow coastal 
plain surrounds the island ; and upon this most of the 
people live, because here the soil can be more readily 
cultivated as well as because a part of the living of 
the natives comes from the sea. The main body of 
the island is practically circular in form and is about 
twenty miles in diameter. A narrow isthmus called 
the "neck" connects this and a smaller part of the 
island. 

The latitude is from 17° 30' south to about 18° south. 
Because of its position in the tropics the climate is 
of course warm, but the ocean exerts a modifying 
influence upon it. There is abundant rainfall, and 
because of this, the high temperature, and the fertile 
soil, the mountains are clothed with vegetation to. 
their very summits, the most lofty of which are more 
than 7000 feet above the sea. 

Numerous streams is another result of the heavy 

144 



TAHITI 



145 




146 OCEANIA 

precipitation. Naturally the streams are short and 
not navigable. In their course from the mountains 
to the sea many falls are developed. The falls of the 
Fantana River are about 700 feet in height. 

One of the beauties of the island is the luxuriant 
tropical vegetation. The banana, breadfruit, cocoa- 
nut, orange, magnolia, and tree fern are seen upon every 
hand. In addition to some of these plants the pine- 
apple and the cane are cultivated. 

Owing to the nature of the climate, food is easy to 
obtain, and clothing and shelter can be secured with 
comparatively little effort. As a result of this the 
natives live simply. Fish, which are very plentiful 
on the coral reef, and "fei,*" a variety of banana, are 
staple articles of food. 

The native huts are built of bamboo poles and the 
roofs are thatched. They contain little furniture, 
in part because so much of the time of the people is 
spent out of doors. Of course some of the houses are 
of lumber. In some cases the houses are painted 
white and have roofs of red tile. As seen through the 
tropical foliage they are very picturesque. 

The chief town on the island is Papeete, situated 
on the northwest coast. It has a good harbor in which 
one or more French vessels can usually be seen. Grass 
grows in the streets, for there is very little traffic upon 
them. Copra is exported from the port. In this, as 



TAHITI 



147 



in other towns, there is a community pool where the 
women do their laundry work. On the northeast 
coast is the town of Papenoo. A road connects this 




Fig. 53. 



Courtesy Oceanic Steamship Company. 
Native House, Tahiti. 



with Papeete , and in fact this road, some 90 miles in 
length, encircles the island. A drive around the island 
is a most enjoyable trip with the blue Pacific upon one 
hand and the rich tropical vegetation upon the other. 



148 



OCEANIA 




CHAPTER XIX 

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 

If one were to get aboard a steamship at San Fran- 
cisco bound for the Hawaiian Islands, he would have 
to travel southwestward for about 2100 miles before 
reaching his destination. The voyage would require 
about 6 days, the first part of which would be in the 
belt of westerly winds, but as the ship moved south 
it would enter the trade- wind belt. 

A map of the world or a globe will show you that 
the Hawaiian Islands are far removed from all other 
land areas. How far are they from Asia and Australia ? 
These islands are on many of the routes which connect 
the opposite shores of the Pacific Ocean. Because of 
this, the islands are often spoken of as the "crossroads 
of the Pacific." The need of coal and other supplies 
on the part of those making the long voyage across 
the Pacific Ocean, the growing commerce of the Ha- 
waiian Islands, and the attractions which they offer 
to tourists have caused the islands to become a stopping 
place. 

Messages of all kinds are daily flashed beneath the 
waters of the Pacific between the countries on its 

149 



150 OCEANIA 

opposite shores. An American cable connects San 
Francisco with the Hawaiian Islands, Guam, the 
Philippine Islands, and Asia. 

Not all of the mountains of the world are above the 
sea. The waves of the ocean roll over many of them. 
The Hawaiian Islands are but t^e tops of a mountain 
system the remainder of which lies far below the sur- 
face of the Pacific. Naturally then the area of these 
islands is small. Although the group consists of many 
islands the total area is less than that of the state of 
New Jersey, and in 1910 the population was not quite 
200,000. The largest of the islands are Hawaii, 
Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai. The first of these, 
although larger than all of the other islands of the group 
combined, is only about the size of Connecticut. 

The mountains, the tops of which form the Hawaiian 
Islands, are volcanic in origin. Some of the volcanoes 
are active at the present time, and they form one of 
the Hawaiian attractions. The island of Hawaii is 
practically made up of several volcanic mountains. 
The highest of these, as well as the highest in the 
group, is Mauna Kea (the white mountain), which is 
nearly 14,000 feet in altitude. Mauna Loa (the great 
mountain) is only a little lower, and on its southern 
slope is Kilauea. 

The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands do not have 
violent explosive outbreaks as does Vesuvius. On 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 151 

this account, they are called non-explosive volcanoes. 
At intervals the lava rises in the craters and overflows 
or breaks through openings on the slopes of the moun- 
tains. Great streams of lava have flowed from Mauna 
Loa to the sea, a distance of about 50 miles. When 
this volcano is not in action , one can go down into its 
crater and observe the molten lava boiling and surging 
to and fro far below. 

Kilauea is so great an attraction that a road has 
been constructed from the city of Hilo to its summit. 
The mountain is visited by large numbers of tourists 
who make the trip to the crater in automobiles. Far 
down in the crater is a lake of molten lava covering 
about 15 acres. 

The latitude of the Hawaiian Islands is practically 
the same as tHat of the West Indies ; and the climate 
is, therefore, tropical. As the area is so small, the ocean 
exerts a great influence upon the climate. As a result, 
the temperature conditions are very uniform. There 
is comparatively little difference between the weather 
of July and that of January. Snow is unknown except 
upon the tops of the highest mountains, where it 
remains for a large part of the year. One can stand 
in the midst of tropical vegetation near sea level and 
gaze at snow fields on the summit of Mauna Kea. 
In what other parts of the world is it possible to have 
a similar experience ? 



152 



OCEANIA 




THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 



153 



The islands are in the belt 
of the northeast trade winds ; 
and, as a result, the east slopes 
receive more rainfall than do 
the west slopes. In some 
places the annual precipita- 
tion on the windward side 
amounts to 75 inches; and in 
the upper Waipio valley, on 
the island of Hawaii, 353 
inches have been recorded in 
a year. There are localities 
on the west slope where the 
annual rainfall is less than 25 
inches. 

Vegetation is much more 
luxuriant on the east than on 
the west slope. Why? Near 
sea level it is tropical in 
character. Tree ferns, palms, 
cocoanut, banana, rubber, and 
other plants that cannot en- 
dure cold weather, are found 
in the forests. 

Agriculture is favored by the 



Fig. 56. — Cocoanut Palms, Hawaiian 
Islands. 




154 OCEANIA 

deep fertile soil, the result of the disintegration of 
the lava, and by the climatic conditions. The 
people use up-to-date tools and machinery and farm 
scientifically. The most important crops are sugar, 
pineapples, coffee, rice, bananas, sisal, tobacco, and 
citrus fruits. Rice was introduced in 1858 and sisal 
in 1893. 

One of the valuable native plants is the kalo or taro, 
from the roots of which the dish known as poi is made. 
The roots are baked in underground ovens, after which 
they are pounded in water. The material is then 
allowed to ferment and is served cold. Formerly 
the natives made a beautiful cloth called tapa from 
the inner bark of the mulberry tree, and a tree known 
as ti furnished the material for thatching the roofs of 
the houses. 

At the time of the discovery of the islands by Euro- 
peans, animal life was quite limited. This was the 
natural result of the fact that the Hawaiian Islands 
are so far from other land areas. Horses, cattle, and 
sheep were unknown at the time mentioned, but they 
have since been introduced. 

There is practically no mineral wealth upon the 
islands ; and this, of course, has greatly hindered manu- 
facturing. From the short but swift streams consid- 
erable water power can be developed. This will, in 
a measure, take the place of coal deposits. 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 



155 




156 OCEANIA 

The chief industry is the tilling of the soil. Sugar 
is the most important manufacture, and is the leading 
export. Much American capital is invested in the 
plantations and the sugar mills, and the sugar is ex- 
ported to San Francisco. Other exports are canned 
pineapples, coffee, and copra. 

Honolulu, the largest city in the islands, is situated 
on the southwest coast of the island of Oahu. It is 
about 12 miles from a magnificent bay known as Pearl 
Harbor, which is entered through an opening in a coral 
reef. 

Because the city is on the leeward side of the island, 
the rainfall is moderate, being only about 25 inches 
annually. Back of the city rises a volcanic mountain 
the crater of which is known as the " Punch Bowl." 
As there is a good road to the summit the trip is a 
favorite one. An automobile road now leads entirely 
around the island. 

Honolulu is in every way a modern city. It has 
electric cars, electric lights, and beautiful parks. Its 
harbor light can be seen at a distance of 25 miles. It 
is well supplied with schools, churches, and social 
organizations of various kinds. Some of its chief im- 
ports are coal, petroleum, machinery, clothing, meat, 
and flour. It exports sugar, pineapples, and copra. 
In 1910 the population of Honolulu was 52,183. 

The chief city on the island of Hawaii is Hilo, which 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 



157 




158 OCEANIA 

in 1910 had a population of about 8000. It is the 
second city in the islands in population and commerce. 
It has a good harbor and exports sugar and rice. 

The native Hawaiians belong to the Malay race. 
They are a very intelligent people , but are steadily 
diminishing in numbers. The first Europeans to visit 
the islands found the natives a pleasure-loving people 
whose simple wants were easily supplied. Music, 
dancing, boating, and swimming have always been 
popular amusements. 

It was found that foreign labor was necessary in 
order to develop the islands. Nearly one half of the 
total population is now Japanese. There are many 
Chinese, Koreans, and Filipinos, and some Americans 
and Europeans. 

In 1527 the islands were discovered by the Spanish, 
but they made no attempt to develop them. In 1778 
they were visited by Captain Cook, an English navi- 
gator who named them the Sandwich Islands in honor 
of the Earl of Sandwich. For a long time this was 
the only name applied to them. The Hawaiian Islands 
were annexed to the United States in 1898 and now 
constitute one of our territories. Name the others. 
Because of the delightful climate and the beautiful 
scenery, they are visited by large numbers of tourists. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Abaca (ab'-a-ka) . 
Adelaide (ad'-e-laide) 

Apia 

Auckland .... 
Australia . . . . 

climate of . . . 

coast line of . . . 

discovery of . . . 

drainage of . . . 

population of . . 

railroads in . . . 

surface of ... 



116 
42 

132 
69 

1 
6 
2 

18 
5 
1 

17 



Banjermasin (ban-jer-mass'-in 

Barrier Reef 

Batavia (ba-ta'-vi-a) . . . . 
Borneo (bor'-ne-o) . . . . 

climate of 

natives of 

Breadfruit 

Breitenzong 

Brisbane (briz'-bane) . . . 

Celebes (cel'-e-bez) . . . , 

coffee in , 

Christchurch 

Cocoanuts 

Coffee 

Coolgarlie (kool-gar'-li) . . , 

Copra 

Coral , 

Dunedin (diin-e'-din) . . , 

Eucalyptus , 



91 

2 

102 

86 

86 

88 

140 

102 

25 

80 
84 
74 

138 
84 
47 

140 
2 

74 



Fiji Islands (fe'-je) 
natives of 

Gold, discovery of 

Hawaiian Islands 

climate of 

population of 

volcanoes of . 
Hilo (he'-lo) . 
Hobart . . . 
Honolulu (ho-no.lu'-lu) 

Iloilo (e-lo-e'-lo) 
Indigo . . . 

Java .... 
natives of 
population of 
products of . 

Kalgoorlie (kal-goor'-lT). 
Kangaroo (kan-ga-roo' ) 
Kauri gum (ka'-u-ri) 



124 
126 

16 

148 
152 
149 
149 
155 
57 
155 

120 

99 

93 

100 

94 

97 

47 
11 
73 



Launceston 59 



Makassar . . . 

Manila . . . . 
Maoris (ma'-o-riz) 

Melbourne . . . 

Menado . . . . 

Mt. Egmont . . 

Mt. Kosciusko . . 

Mt. Ruapehu . . 

Murray-Darling . 



81 
118 
66 
39 
82 
66 
26 
66 
31 



159 



160 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Newcastle 31 

New Guinea 76 

New South Wales .... 26 

population of 26 

New Zealand 61 

geysers of 67 

glaciers of 72 

Northern Territory .... 51 

North Island 56 

Outriggers 142 

Padang (pa-dang') .... 108 

Pago Pago (pang'-o pang'-o) . 131 

Papeete (pa-pat') 146 

Pepper 110 

Philippine Islands . . . . 113 

climate of 114 

latitude of 114 

natives of 120 

purchase price of . . . . 113 

Poi (po'-e) 140 

Port Jackson 32 

Queensland 21 

climate of 21 

population of 21 

railroads in 25 

Rice 117 

Robert Louis Stevenson . . 143 



Sago 110 

Samoa Islands 131 

natives of 135 

Sheep 31 

South Australia 41 

climate of 41 

South Island 71 

Sumatra (su-ma'-tra) . . . 105 

natives of 106 

Surabaya (soo-ra-bi'-a) . . 102 

Sydney 31 

Tahiti (ta-hee'-tee) .... 144 

latitude of 144 

Tasmania 53 

climate of 54 

Victoria 35 

climate of 35 

mineral wealth of ... . 37 

Wellington 69 

West Australia 45 

area of 45 

mineral wealth of ... . 47 

water supply of .... 49 

Wool 31 

Yams 129 



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Chamberlain : Continents and Their People 

NORTH AMERICA EUROPE AFRICA 

SOUTH AMERICA ASIA OCEANIA 

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North America 

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Africa 

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ENGLISH SPOKEN AND WRITTEN 

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